Intermediate Latin Texts
Latin texts for intermediate level: Caesar's Gallic War, Catullus, Ovid's Metamorphoses, Martial's Epigrams, Pliny the Younger's Letters.
Intermediate Latin Texts
This guide covers the standard intermediate Latin reading curriculum — the authors and texts that bridge the gap between LLPSI / novice material and genuinely advanced reading. Each section explains what makes the text approachable or difficult, what grammatical constructions dominate it, and how to read it efficiently. A final section covers how to use DCC commentaries, which are the best free annotated editions available for almost all of these authors.
The texts are ordered roughly from easiest to hardest within the intermediate band, not by historical period.
Eutropius, Breviarium ab Urbe Condita
Date: ~369 CE | Author: Eutropius (imperial secretary under Valens) | Level: Early Intermediate | Genre: Abbreviated Roman history, 10 books
What It Is
A brief, encyclopedic history of Rome from Romulus and Remus through the reign of Emperor Valens, dedicated to the emperor himself. Written to provide a quick, accessible orientation to Roman history for educated non-specialists and for use in the schools. The 10 books cover: the kings (Book 1), early Republic through the Punic Wars (Books 2–3), the mid-Republic and crisis (Books 4–6), the late Republic (Book 6), the Empire from Augustus to Diocletian (Books 7–9), and the tetrarchy and recent events (Book 10).
Why Read It at This Level
Eutropius writes in the clearest, most un-ornamented Latin of any major ancient author. His sentences are short and formulaic. A typical sentence: Postea bellum adversus Pyrrhum, regem Epiri, susceptum est. The passive voice, relative clauses, and indirect statement all appear, but within a structure that is almost always predictable. After LLPSI or equivalent grammar study, Eutropius is immediately accessible.
The DCC annotated edition (Daniel Sheets, Dickinson College Commentaries) is free at dcc.dickinson.edu. It includes running vocabulary sorted by chapter, notes on difficult constructions, and a comprehensive glossary. This is the best starting point for self-study.
Reading Strategy for Eutropius
- Read books 1–2 first. They are the shortest and most formulaic — ideal for building confidence.
- Notice the recurring structure: [emperor/general] [x] annos regnavit/imperavit; [action in perfect passive]; mortuus est. This skeleton carries most of the narrative.
- After Books 1–2, Books 3–6 grow slightly more complex as the narrative becomes richer during the Punic War era.
- Books 7–10 are the most complex and historically dense — best read after you have warmed up on the earlier books.
- Constructions to watch: ablative absolute (Caesare consule); indirect statement (dixit Romanos vicisse); passive verb with ablative of agent.
Key Constructions
| Construction | Example from Eutropius | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Perfect passive + agent | a Pyrrho victus est | Very frequent in battle narratives |
| Ablative absolute | pace facta, reversus est | Watch for participial phrases |
| Indirect statement | nuntiavit hostes victos esse | Standard indirect statement formula |
| Temporal clause | cum Romani... intrarent | Cum + imperfect/pluperfect subj. common |
| Relative clause | qui bellum gesserat | Straightforward; antecedent usually clear |
Cornelius Nepos, Lives (De Viris Illustribus)
Date: ~35–32 BCE | Author: Cornelius Nepos (contemporary of Cicero and Caesar) | Level: Early-to-Mid Intermediate | Genre: Short biographical prose
What It Is
Short biographies of famous Greek and Roman generals and statesmen. The surviving lives (Vitae) cover 22 subjects: mostly Greek generals (Miltiades, Themistocles, Alcibiades, Epaminondas) with some non-Romans (Hamilcar, Hannibal) and a few Romans (Atticus, his personal friend). Each biography runs between 1 and 8 pages — perfect for reading one per sitting.
Nepos was a popular author in Roman schools and has remained so in modern ones. His Latin is simpler than Caesar's and more direct than Sallust's, but genuinely classical in syntax and style.
Why Read Nepos
- The short individual texts (1–5 pages) allow you to finish a complete work in a single sitting — important for building confidence.
- Vocabulary overlaps heavily with Caesar's, making Nepos the best immediate preparation for the Bellum Gallicum.
- Historical content introduces Greek history and the Greek generals whose careers directly shaped Roman military thinking — important context for reading any Latin historian.
- The prose style teaches how classical Latin handles narrative momentum: Nepos uses the ablative absolute and participial constructions constantly.
Reading Strategy for Nepos
Start with the lives of Miltiades and Themistocles (the two shortest). Both concern the Persian Wars and are historically famous; the Latin is accessible. Then read Hannibal — longer and more dramatic, but Nepos's vocabulary is by this point familiar.
The Epaminondas life is the most philosophically interesting and most laudatory. The Atticus life is the longest and deals with contemporary Roman society; it is the hardest because it assumes knowledge of late Republican politics.
Available: Free on Perseus; DCC vocabulary list available; inexpensive print editions with vocabulary support widely available. The Rolfe Loeb edition is standard for parallel text.
Constructions Common in Nepos
| Construction | Frequency | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Ablative absolute | Very high | Used in almost every paragraph |
| Indirect statement (acc. + inf.) | High | With dixit, putavit, credidit |
| Purpose clause (ut + subj.) | High | Especially in military contexts |
| Relative clause of description | Medium | Identifies subjects and objects |
| Genitive of quality | Medium | vir magnae virtutis |
Caesar, De Bello Gallico (Gallic War)
Date: Written 58–50 BCE, likely published ~51 BCE | Author: Julius Caesar | Level: Early-to-Mid Intermediate | Genre: Military memoir / political self-presentation | 8 books (Book 8 by Hirtius)
What It Is
Caesar's account of his nine-year conquest of Gaul, written in the third person (Caesar...fecit) as a combination of military dispatch, political justification, and literary achievement. Books 1–7 are by Caesar; Book 8 was added posthumously by his officer Aulus Hirtius.
This was for generations the standard first authentic text for Latin students in the United States and Britain. It remains excellent for early intermediate reading.
Books 1–4: Clearer, More Accessible
Books 1–4 contain Caesar's most famous and most grammatically straightforward passages.
Book 1 opens with the famous geographic survey (Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres), continues with the Helvetian migration (ch. 1–29), and ends with the war against Ariovistus (ch. 30–54). Chapter 1 is the most parsed passage in all of Latin — its sentence structure is unusually clear.
Book 2 covers the war against the Belgians. More fighting, somewhat less political maneuvering than Book 1; good for building vocabulary.
Book 3 is the shortest and most varied. Naval battle against the Veneti (ch. 7–16) is the most interesting narrative unit. A good book for reading straight through.
Book 4 covers the expedition to Britain and the defeat of the Germans. Chapters 20–36 (first British expedition) are the most commonly excerpted passages after Book 1.
AP Latin: AP Latin currently requires Book 1 and Books 6–7 (select chapters). Book 6 on Gaulish customs and Book 7 on the siege of Alesia are among the best narrative passages in all of Caesar.
Books 5–8: Harder, More Complex
Books 5–8 involve denser political and military complexity, more characters to track, and more subordinate clause nesting. The siege of Alesia in Book 7 (ch. 68–89) is the finest sustained narrative in the Bellum Gallicum but requires solid intermediate competence to read well.
Caesar's Dominant Grammatical Constructions
Caesar relies on five constructions more than almost any other Latin author. Learning these before you start reading will dramatically reduce your cognitive load.
| Construction | Caesar's typical use | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Indirect statement (acc. + inf.) | Reported military intelligence, dispatches | nuntiabant hostes castra movisse |
| Ablative absolute | Simultaneous or prior action | his rebus gestis, Caesar... |
| Relative temporal clause | Setting the scene for a new episode | cum hostes adpropinquarent... |
| Purpose clause | Why a maneuver or order was given | ut frumentum comportaretur |
| Participial phrase (perfect pass.) | Describing the state of affairs | equitatu praemisso, legiones sequuntur |
Military Vocabulary Core List
Caesar assumes familiarity with Roman military institutions. These terms appear on nearly every page:
| Latin | Meaning |
|---|---|
| legio, legionis (f.) | legion (~5,000 men) |
| cohors, cohortis (f.) | cohort (1/10 of a legion) |
| signum, -i (n.) | military standard; signal |
| iter, itineris (n.) | march; route |
| castra, -orum (n.pl.) | (military) camp |
| agger, -eris (m.) | rampart; siege mound |
| fossa, -ae (f.) | ditch; trench |
| munio, -ire | to fortify; to build (a camp) |
| impedimenta, -orum (n.pl.) | baggage train |
| equitatus, -us (m.) | cavalry |
| peditatus, -us (m.) | infantry |
Reading Strategy for Caesar
Do not read Caesar as your first authentic text. Read Eutropius (1–2 books) and two or three Nepos lives first. When you come to Caesar:
- Read the chapter opening carefully: Caesar almost always starts a new episode by establishing who is where (Caesar in Galliam contendit; Helvetii per provinicam iter facere conabantur).
- Find the main verb before parsing subordinate clauses. Caesar's sentences can be long, but there is always a main verb, and it usually comes late.
- Mark ablative absolutes as you encounter them. They are often the pivots of Caesar's narrative.
- Build a flashcard deck for military vocabulary before you start Book 1.
DCC annotated edition: Free at dcc.dickinson.edu — includes full notes for Book 1 and selected books, running vocabulary, maps, and a glossary. This is the best free resource for Caesar.
Cicero, Letters (Epistulae ad Familiares and Epistulae ad Atticum)
Date: 68–43 BCE | Author: Marcus Tullius Cicero | Level: Mid Intermediate | Genre: Personal and political correspondence | Number: ~900 letters surviving across both collections
What They Are
Two major collections of Cicero's letters. The Epistulae ad Familiares (Letters to Friends and Family) includes correspondence with a wide range of recipients — soldiers, politicians, friends, and family. The Epistulae ad Atticum (Letters to Atticus) are addressed to Cicero's closest friend, Titus Pomponius Atticus, and are his most personal, candid, and colloquial writing.
These letters were not written for publication. They are the closest thing we have to Cicero's unguarded voice — full of abbreviations, Greek phrases, topical references, emotion, and humor. Compared to Cicero's speeches or philosophical works, the letters are dramatically more accessible.
Why Read the Letters at Intermediate Level
- The colloquial register means shorter sentences, simpler subordinate clause structure, and more direct expression.
- The vocabulary is high-frequency and practical — the letters cover everyday Roman life, friendship, money, politics, anxiety, and wit.
- Reading the letters builds an intuition for Latin word order in informal prose that is different from the elevated periodic style of the speeches.
- Excellent for intermediate vocabulary building: the Familiares in particular use common words in natural contexts.
Where to Start
Recommended first letters:
| Letter | Content | Why it is good for intermediates |
|---|---|---|
| Fam. 2.4 | To Curio: witty, short | Very clear register; famous for its wit |
| Fam. 5.12 | To Lucceius: asking for a flattering biography | Longer; shows Cicero's self-awareness |
| Att. 1.1 | First surviving letter to Atticus | Short; politically interesting; good Latin |
| Att. 1.5 | Plans and domestic news | Excellent colloquial Latin; short sentences |
| Att. 4.1 | After exile; emotional; personal | Shows Cicero's emotional range |
| Fam. 16.4 | To his secretary Tiro (ill) | Affectionate; excellent vocabulary |
Reading Strategy for the Letters
- Read the historical introduction first. The letters are datable and referential — without knowing who Clodius is, or why Cicero was exiled, much of the wit and pathos is lost. A good companion is D.R. Shackleton Bailey's commentary, or at minimum the introductions in the Oxford or Teubner editions.
- Accept abbreviations: Cicero uses s.v.b.e.e.q.v. (si vales, bene est; ego quidem valeo) and other standard epistolary formulas; learn these formulae first.
- Watch for Greek phrases: Cicero quotes Greek frequently in the Atticus letters. These are glossed in all good editions.
- Note the tense system: Letters use the present tense in ways that can feel odd — Cicero writes in the "present of writing," meaning what is present when he writes may be past when Atticus reads.
Constructions Specific to Ciceronian Letters
| Construction | Notes |
|---|---|
| Epistolary imperfect | scripsi / scribebam used for present action (writer's perspective) |
| Parenthetical ut ita dicam | Cicero's self-conscious hedging; very common |
| Indirect question in colloquial style | Often with quid + subjunctive: nescio quid agam |
| Greek quotations (kat' exochen) | Appear without translation; learn common ones |
| Ellipsis of esse | Very frequent in informal writing |
Pliny the Younger, Letters (Epistulae)
Date: ~97–109 CE | Author: Gaius Caecilius Secundus (Pliny the Younger) | Level: Mid Intermediate | Genre: Published literary letters | 10 books, 247 letters
What They Are
Unlike Cicero's letters (which were private and published posthumously), Pliny consciously crafted and published his own letters as a literary monument. They are more formal than Cicero's Atticus letters but far more accessible than Cicero's speeches. Each letter is a miniature essay on a single topic — a character sketch, an account of a natural phenomenon, a description of his villa, a problem in law, or a meditation on friendship and loss.
Book 10 is unique: it consists of official correspondence between Pliny (as governor of Bithynia-Pontus) and Emperor Trajan. This book includes the famous exchange about early Christians (10.96–97) — the earliest non-Christian Roman description of Christian practice.
Famous Letters (With Difficulty Rating)
| Letter | Subject | Difficulty |
|---|---|---|
| 6.16 | Eruption of Vesuvius; Pliny the Elder's death | Intermediate |
| 6.20 | Pliny's own escape from Vesuvius | Intermediate |
| 1.1 | Preface to the collection | Intermediate |
| 3.5 | Description of Pliny the Elder's reading habits | Intermediate |
| 2.17 | Description of Pliny's Laurentine villa | Mid–Advanced (long and complex) |
| 5.8 | On writing history | Intermediate |
| 9.6 | Pliny observes dolphins | Intermediate; charming |
| 10.96 | Pliny asks Trajan about Christians | Intermediate; historically essential |
| 10.97 | Trajan's reply | Easy; very short |
Why Pliny is an Excellent Intermediate Text
- Each letter is short (most under one page) and complete — ideal for reading one per session.
- Pliny's style is more literary than Cicero's letters but cleaner than his speeches. He tends to write in pairs of parallel clauses, which makes his structure easy to follow.
- The DCC commentary (Jacqueline Arthur-Montagne, Dickinson College Commentaries) is free online and covers Books 1 and 6 in full — including the Vesuvius letters. This is the single best free intermediate commentary available in 2025.
- The subject matter is endlessly varied: nature, friendship, death, the Roman villa, law, governance, Christianity.
Reading Strategy for Pliny
- Start with the Vesuvius letters (6.16 and 6.20): these are historically famous, narratively compelling, and linguistically accessible. Reading both together gives you a complete picture of a single dramatic event.
- Then read 10.96–97: at under 500 words total, these are a fast read with enormous historical importance. The contrast between Pliny's anxiety and Trajan's brief pragmatism is striking.
- Pliny's characteristic style: paired clauses (non solum... sed etiam; ita... ut); long participial phrases before the main verb; careful use of quidem and other particles to modulate tone. Watch for these.
- For villa description (2.17): Read slowly and with a floor plan sketch. Pliny is very precise about spatial relationships; following the geography helps both comprehension and vocabulary retention.
DCC Commentary on Pliny
The DCC Pliny commentary includes:
- Full Latin text
- Running vocabulary (sorted by letter and section)
- Notes on grammatical constructions
- Historical and cultural background
- Glossary of proper nouns
Access at dcc.dickinson.edu. The most efficient method is to read the Latin first (struggling through on your own), then read the notes, then re-read the Latin with your understanding corrected.
Sallust (Bellum Catilinae and Bellum Jugurthinum)
Date: BC ~43 BCE; BJ ~40 BCE | Author: Gaius Sallustius Crispus | Level: Mid-to-Upper Intermediate | Genre: Historical monograph
What They Are
Two historical monographs by the former Caesarean politician turned historian. The Bellum Catilinae (or De Coniuratione Catilinae) covers the Catilinarian conspiracy of 63 BCE — Cicero's great political crisis — in 61 compressed chapters. The Bellum Jugurthinum covers the war against Jugurtha of Numidia (111–104 BCE) in 114 chapters and is a longer, more complex work.
Both monographs include extended prefaces (proemia) that state Sallust's moral-historical philosophy — the decline of Roman virtue through ambitio (ambition) and avaritia (greed). These prefaces are harder than the narrative sections and are best read after the main narrative.
Why Sallust is Harder than Caesar
Sallust consciously models his style on Thucydides: compressed, asymmetrical, and pointed. He prefers:
- Archaism: old Latin forms like lubido (for libido), parum in unusual senses, forms from pre-classical Latin
- Asymmetry: deliberately unbalanced sentence structures, unlike Cicero's carefully balanced periods
- Compressed expression: he says in 10 words what Cicero would say in 30
- Implied subject changes: the subject switches without explicit pronoun, tracking who is doing what requires careful attention
This makes Sallust harder than Caesar but also more rewarding. His portraits of Catiline, Jugurtha, and Sempronia (the remarkable character sketch in BC 25) are among the most vivid in Latin literature.
Reading Strategy for Sallust
- Read the Bellum Catilinae first: it is shorter and the story is more compressed. Chapters 1–13 (the proemium and introduction of Catiline) establish the moral framework. Chapters 17–22 (the conspiracy itself) are the core narrative.
- Start the narrative, not the proemium: Sallust's philosophical prefaces are his most compressed and difficult writing. Read chapters 5 onward before returning to chapters 1–4.
- Track speakers carefully in speeches: Sallust includes substantial speeches (by Caesar and Cato in BC, by Adherbal and Memmius in BJ). Speeches are rendered in indirect or semi-direct style; they are grammatically demanding but essential to understanding the work.
- Key passage to read first: BC chapters 5–7 (portrait of Catiline) and chapter 25 (portrait of Sempronia) — these are the most famous and most anthologized passages.
Sallust's Characteristic Constructions
| Feature | Example | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Archaism | lubido, parum, fore | Deliberately archaic; note in a glossary |
| Participial periphrasis | agitabatur for agitaverat | Compressed past tense |
| Subject ellipsis | Verb changes subject without pronoun | Track antecedent carefully |
| Historical infinitive | Catilina furere, rapi omnia | Vivid present-tense narrative device |
| Asymmetric period | A, sed non B without balancing | Deliberate imbalance; Thucydidean style |
Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, Book 1
Date: ~27–25 BCE | Author: Titus Livius (Livy) | Level: Mid-to-Upper Intermediate | Genre: Annalistic history | Total work: 142 books (35 survive)
What It Is
The opening book of Livy's monumental history of Rome from its founding (ab urbe condita) to 9 BCE. Book 1 covers the founding myths: Aeneas in Italy, Romulus and Remus, the rape of the Sabine women, the seven kings of Rome, and Tarquin the Proud. It is simultaneously Livy's most mythological and most literary book.
Livy's Latin is often called lactea ubertas — "milky richness" (Quintilian's phrase). His sentences are long, periodic, and carefully structured. He is a harder read than Eutropius or Nepos but considerably more rewarding as literary Latin.
Why Book 1
- The founding myths (Romulus, Remus, Lucretia, Tarquinius Superbus) are the most culturally famous content in Roman historiography.
- Book 1 is relatively self-contained and highly annotated — more school editions and commentaries exist for Book 1 than any other Livy book.
- The vocabulary is foundational: reading Livy Book 1 sets you up for reading any subsequent Roman prose.
Reading Strategy for Livy
- Find a well-annotated edition: Ogilvie's commentary (Oxford, 1965) is the scholarly standard; the Clyde Pharr school edition is accessible for intermediates.
- Read for sense before structure: Livy's sentences are long but usually follow a clear arc — setting, complication, resolution. Sketch the main verb first, then the subordinate clauses.
- Key passages:
- Ch. 1–7: Aeneas in Italy; the origins of Rome (moderately complex)
- Ch. 6–7: Romulus and Remus; the founding (foundational; frequently anthologized)
- Ch. 9–13: Rape of the Sabine women; ensuing war and reconciliation (vivid narrative)
- Ch. 46–60: Tarquinius Superbus and Lucretia (the most famous section; passionate narrative)
Livy's Dominant Constructions
| Construction | Frequency | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Cum narrative (cum + imperfect/pluperfect subj.) | Very high | The single most common Livy construction |
| Indirect statement | High | Historical narrative constantly reports what was said/thought |
| Ablative absolute | High | Sets scene for each new narrative unit |
| Gerundive of obligation | Medium | Political and moral judgments |
| Oratio recta (direct speech) | Medium | Speeches in direct address; dramatically vivid |
Text Comparison and Sequencing Guide
| Text | Prose/Verse | Difficulty | Best Entry Point | AP Latin? |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eutropius Breviarium | Prose | Easiest authentic prose | Books 1–2 | No |
| Cornelius Nepos Lives | Prose | Easy intermediate | Miltiades, Hannibal | No |
| Caesar BG | Prose | Early intermediate | Book 1, ch. 1–7 | Yes (Books 1, 6–7) |
| Cicero Epistulae | Prose | Mid intermediate | Att. 1.1; Fam. 16.4 | No |
| Pliny Letters | Prose | Mid intermediate | 6.16, 6.20 | No |
| Sallust BC | Prose | Mid-upper intermediate | BC ch. 5–7 | No |
| Livy Book 1 | Prose | Mid-upper intermediate | Ch. 6–7; ch. 57–60 | No |
| Catullus (selected) | Verse | Intermediate | Poems 2, 3, 5, 85 | Yes (poems 51, 64, 76, 85, 101) |
| Ovid Met. | Verse | Intermediate–Advanced | Book 1 (Apollo-Daphne) | Yes (selected books) |
How to Use DCC Commentaries Efficiently
The Dickinson College Commentaries (dcc.dickinson.edu) are the best free annotated Latin editions available online. They cover Eutropius, Caesar, Nepos, Pliny, Sallust, Ovid, and more. Each commentary includes a full Latin text, running vocabulary, grammatical notes, and essays on historical and cultural context.
Workflow: Five Steps
Step 1: Read the Latin cold.
Before opening the notes, read the passage all the way through. Do not stop at every unknown word. Note which words and constructions stop you, but keep reading. This first pass builds your tolerance for ambiguity — an essential skill for intermediate readers.
Step 2: Re-read with vocabulary.
On your second pass, use the running vocabulary list (sorted by section in DCC). Look up the words you could not guess from context. Write new vocabulary in a notebook or Anki deck.
Step 3: Identify unknown constructions.
After vocabulary, mark any grammatical structures you cannot parse — ablative absolutes, indirect statement constructions, subjunctive clauses. Look these up in the notes before reaching for a translation.
Step 4: Read the notes.
DCC notes explain both vocabulary and constructions. They also give cultural and historical context (e.g., who Jugurtha was; what the Roman comitia were; the significance of a Vestal's testimony). Read the notes after you have made your best attempt at the passage.
Step 5: Re-read the Latin.
Always re-read the Latin passage after consulting notes and vocabulary. The final re-read — with full understanding — builds the kind of immediate comprehension that distinguishes good Latin readers from laborious ones.
What to Do with Translations
Rule: Never read the English translation before you have read the Latin twice (once cold, once with vocabulary). Translations are useful for checking your understanding after the fact, but reading the translation first bypasses the brain work that builds actual reading skill.
The DCC interface does not include translations directly. The standard parallel translations available on Perseus and thelatinlibrary.com are useful as a final check.
DCC Texts Available (2025)
| Author | DCC Coverage |
|---|---|
| Eutropius | Full Breviarium |
| Caesar BG | Book 1 full; selected other books |
| Cornelius Nepos | Selected lives with vocabulary |
| Sallust BC | Full text; running vocabulary |
| Pliny Letters | Book 1 and Book 6 with full notes |
| Ovid Amores | Selected poems |
| Cicero Pro Archia | Full with notes |
| Virgil Aeneid | Book 1 and others |
All are free at dcc.dickinson.edu.
Reading Strategy Summary by Author
| Author | Watch For | Common Pitfall | Key Tip |
|---|---|---|---|
| Eutropius | Perfect passive constructions | Passive agent (abl. of agent vs. abl. of means) | Find the verb first; identify subject |
| Nepos | Ablative absolute pivots | Missing subject switch | Track who is doing what in each participial phrase |
| Caesar | Military vocabulary; indirect statement | Getting lost in long sentences | Learn military vocabulary before you start |
| Cicero Letters | Colloquial ellipsis; Greek quotes | Epistolary imperfect confusing present/past | Read the historical context for each letter |
| Pliny Letters | Paired clauses; quidem and particles | Assuming it is as easy as it looks | Read each letter as a complete essay |
| Sallust | Compressed style; archaism; subject ellipsis | Missing subject changes | Slow down; pause at each verb and ask "who?" |
| Livy | Long periodic sentences; cum narrative | Losing the main verb in the period | Bracket subordinate clauses; find main verb first |