Latin Verbals

Latin verbals: all 6 infinitives, all 4 participles, the gerund, gerundive (passive periphrastic), and supine — with full paradigms and usage examples.

Verbals are forms derived from verbs that function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Latin has more verbal forms than almost any other language: six infinitives, four participles, a gerund, a gerundive, and a supine. Mastering them unlocks almost every complex Latin sentence.

Quick map:

Form Function Time relative to main verb
Infinitive noun or indirect statement varies by tense
Present Active Participle adjective or adverb simultaneous
Perfect Passive Participle adjective or adverb prior
Future Active Participle adjective or adverb subsequent
Gerundive adjective (obligation) —
Gerund verbal noun —
Supine verbal noun (purpose / limit) —

1. Infinitives — All Six Forms

Latin has six infinitives organized by tense (present, perfect, future) and voice (active, passive).

1.1 Complete Infinitive Table — All Four Conjugations

The table shows the present active infinitive, which is the principal form you learn first. The rest are built from the principal parts.

Legend: PP3 = third principal part (perfect active stem); PP4 = fourth principal part (PPP).

Present Infinitives

Conjugation Active Passive
1st (amō, amāre) amāre — to love amārī
2nd (moneō, monēre) monēre — to warn monērī
3rd (regō, regere) regere — to rule regī
3rd-io (capiō, capere) capere — to take capī
4th (audiō, audīre) audīre — to hear audīrī

Pattern: active = present stem + -re; passive = active infinitive with final -e → -ī (1st/2nd) or just -ī appended (3rd/4th).

Perfect Infinitives

Conjugation Active Passive
1st amāvisse amātus/-a/-um esse
2nd monuisse monitus/-a/-um esse
3rd rēxisse rēctus/-a/-um esse
3rd-io cēpisse captus/-a/-um esse
4th audīvisse audītus/-a/-um esse

Pattern: active = perfect stem + -isse; passive = PPP (agreeing with subject) + esse.

Future Infinitives

Conjugation Active Passive
1st amātūrus/-a/-um esse amātum īrī
2nd monitūrus/-a/-um esse monitum īrī
3rd rēctūrus/-a/-um esse rēctum īrī
3rd-io captūrus/-a/-um esse captum īrī
4th audītūrus/-a/-um esse audītūrus/-a/-um esse (rare)

Pattern: active = FAP (-ūrus/-a/-um) + esse; passive = accusative supine + īrī (indeclinable; extremely rare in classical prose).

1.2 Present Infinitive Uses

A. Complementary Infinitive

Completes the meaning of a finite verb that would be incomplete without it. The most common trigger verbs are possum (can), dēbeō (ought), volō (want), nōlō (not want), mālō (prefer), coepiō (begin), dēsinō (cease), audēō (dare).

  • possum venīre — "I am able to come"
  • nōlō legere — "I do not want to read"
  • mīlitēs pugnāre dēsinunt — "The soldiers are ceasing to fight"

No subject accusative is used — the infinitive subject is the same as the main verb.

B. Indirect Statement (Accusative + Infinitive, ACI)

After verbs of saying, thinking, perceiving, and knowing, Latin uses a subject accusative + infinitive construction. The tense of the infinitive is relative to the main verb:

  • Present infinitive = action simultaneous with the main verb
  • dīcit Caesarem esse fortem — "He says that Caesar is brave" (same time)
  • putō tē valēre — "I think that you are well" (same time)

C. Historical (Narrative) Infinitive

A stylistic device: the present infinitive replaces the imperfect indicative to make rapid narrative more vivid. Always used with a nominative subject, never in indirect statement.

  • hostēs fugere, mīlitēs sequī, nēmō resistere — "The enemies were fleeing, the soldiers were pursuing, no one was resisting"
  • Common in Livy, Sallust, Caesar.

D. Subject / Object Infinitive (Noun Use)

The infinitive can serve as the subject or object of a clause:

  • errāre est hūmānum — "To err is human" (subject)
  • discere oportet — "It is necessary to learn" (subject with impersonal)

1.3 Perfect Infinitive Uses

The perfect infinitive expresses action completed before the time of the main verb.

  • dīcit Caesarem vicisse — "He says that Caesar has conquered / conquered" (prior to dīcit)
  • crēdō tē vēnisse — "I believe that you came" (you came before I believe it now)
  • gaudēō tē salvum esse — note: esse here is present; contrast with gaudēō tē salvum fuisse — "I am glad that you were safe (at that earlier time)"

Common error: Using the perfect infinitive when the present is correct. The perfect stresses completion before the main verb's time — do not use it simply for past tense.

1.4 Future Infinitive Uses

The future infinitive expresses action that will happen after the main verb. It is overwhelmingly used in indirect statement (ACI).

  • spērō mē victūrum esse — "I hope that I will conquer"
  • crēdēbant Rōmam captum īrī — "They believed that Rome would be captured" (passive; very rare)
  • prōmīsit sē ventūrum esse — "He promised that he would come"

Key: The FAP (-ūrus) agrees with the subject accusative in gender and number.

2. Participles — All Four Forms

Latin has four participles: present active, perfect passive (PPP), future active (FAP), and future passive / gerundive. Note what Latin lacks: there is no present passive participle and no perfect active participle. This gap forces learners to use other constructions (ablative absolute, cum-clauses, etc.).

2.1 Participle Overview Table

Participle Voice Time Ending Declension
Present Active (PAP) active simultaneous -ns, -ntis 3rd (1-ending adj.)
Perfect Passive (PPP) passive prior -tus/-sus/-itus, -a, -um 1st-2nd
Future Active (FAP) active subsequent -tūrus/-tūra/-tūrum 1st-2nd
Gerundive (FPP) passive obligation -ndus/-nda/-ndum 1st-2nd

2.2 Present Active Participle (PAP)

Formation: Present stem + -ns (nominative) / -ntis (genitive).

Conjugation Present Stem Nominative sg. Genitive sg.
1st amāre amā- amāns amantis
2nd monēre monē- monēns monentis
3rd regere reg- regēns regentis
3rd-io capere capi- capiēns capientis
4th audīre audi- audiēns audientis

Full paradigm of amāns, amantis (3rd-declension, one termination):

Case Masc./Fem. Neuter
Nom. sg. amāns amāns
Gen. sg. amantis amantis
Dat. sg. amantī amantī
Acc. sg. amantem amāns
Abl. sg. amante (pred.) / amantī (attrib.) amante / amantī
Nom. pl. amantēs amantia
Gen. pl. amantium amantium
Dat./Abl. pl. amantibus amantibus
Acc. pl. amantēs amantia

Note on ablative: Use -ī when the participle is purely attributive (like an adjective); use -e when it is more verbal (predicate or ablative absolute).

Uses of the PAP:

A. Adjectival (attributive)

  • puer cantāns intrāvit — "the singing boy entered"
  • aqua fluēns — "flowing water"

B. Adjectival (predicative / circumstantial)

  • mīlitēs pugnantēs vīdī — "I saw the soldiers fighting" (while they were fighting)
  • senex dīcēns abiit — "The old man left, speaking" (as he spoke)

C. Substantive use (participle used as a noun)

  • amantēs — "lovers" (those who love)
  • clamantēs audīvimus — "We heard those shouting"

D. Temporal / Concessive

  • The PAP's relationship to the main verb is expressed through context; add dum or a translation like "while" or "although."
  • Caesar haec audīēns rīsit — "Caesar, hearing this, laughed" (while/upon hearing)

2.3 Perfect Passive Participle (PPP)

The PPP is the fourth principal part of the verb. It declines exactly like a 1st-2nd declension adjective (bonus, -a, -um).

Verb PPP (masc. sg.) Meaning
amō, amāre amātus having been loved
moneō, monēre monitus having been warned
regō, regere rēctus having been ruled
capiō, capere captus having been taken
audiō, audīre audītus having been heard
videō, vidēre vīsus having been seen
dūcō, dūcere ductus having been led
mittō, mittere missus having been sent
scrībō, scrībere scrīptus having been written

Agreement rule: The PPP must agree with the noun it modifies in gender, number, and case — exactly like any adjective.

  • milēs vulnerātus (masc. sg. nom.) — "the wounded soldier"
  • puellam captam (fem. sg. acc.) — "the captured girl"
  • urbes dēlētae (fem. pl. nom.) — "the destroyed cities"

Uses of the PPP:

A. Attributive adjective

  • epistula scrīpta — "the written letter"
  • pons ruptus — "the broken bridge"

B. Ablative Absolute (PPP + ablative noun, with no connecting word to the main clause)

  • oppidō captō, Caesar discessit — "The town having been captured, Caesar departed"
  • hostibus victīs, pāx fuit — "The enemies having been defeated, there was peace"

C. Perfect passive tense (PPP + esse)

  • epistula scrīpta est — "The letter was written / has been written"

D. Substantive use

  • vulnerātī — "the wounded" (men)
  • damnātōs servāvit — "He saved the condemned"

2.4 Future Active Participle (FAP)

Formation: PPP stem + -ūrus/-ūra/-ūrum. Declines as a 1st-2nd declension adjective.

Verb FAP
amō amātūrus, -a, -um
moneō monitūrus, -a, -um
regō rēctūrus, -a, -um
capiō captūrus, -a, -um
audiō audītūrus, -a, -um
sum futūrus, -a, -um (or fore)

Uses of the FAP:

A. Expressing imminent or intended action

  • Caesar dictūrus erat — "Caesar was about to speak"
  • moritūrus tē salūtat — "He who is about to die salutes you" (Ave, Imperātor, moritūrī tē salūtant)

B. Building the Future Active Infinitive (FAP + esse)

  • spērō mē victūrum esse — "I hope that I will conquer"
  • The FAP agrees with the subject accusative in the ACI.

C. Purpose / intention (classical prose, rare without esse)

  • lēgātōs misit pācem petītūrōs — "He sent ambassadors to seek peace" (intending to seek)

2.5 Gerundive (Future Passive Participle / FPP)

Formation: Present stem + -ndus/-nda/-ndum. Declines as a 1st-2nd declension adjective.

Conjugation Gerundive
1st amāre amandus, -a, -um
2nd monēre monendus, -a, -um
3rd regere regendus, -a, -um
3rd-io capere capiendus, -a, -um
4th audīre audiendus, -a, -um

The gerundive expresses necessity or obligation: something must be done or needs to be done.

Passive Periphrastic = gerundive + esse (any tense/person).

The person obligated goes in the dative case (dative of agent — not ablative as with passive voice).

Full examples across persons and tenses:

Latin Translation
liber legendus est "The book must be read"
mihi eundum est "I must go" (lit. "it is to-be-gone by me")
tibi haec facienda erant "You had to do these things"
nōbīs Caesar audiendus erat "We had to listen to Caesar"
urbs dēlenda est "The city must be destroyed" (Cato's Carthāgō dēlenda est)
pāx petenda erit "Peace will have to be sought"

Intransitive verbs: Since there is no object, the gerundive is neuter singular (-ndum est); agent still dative.

  • mihi eundum est — "I must go"
  • tibi currendum est — "You must run"

3. Gerund

The gerund is a verbal noun (neuter 2nd declension). It appears only in the oblique cases (genitive, dative, accusative, ablative); the nominative function is supplied by the infinitive.

Case Ending Use Example
(none — use infinitive) — subject / predicate nominative amāre est dulce — "To love is sweet"
Genitive -andī / -endī / -endī / -iendī of [verb]-ing ars amandī — "the art of loving"
Dative -andō / -endō for [verb]-ing amandō operam dat — "he gives attention to loving"
Accusative -andum / -endum [verb]-ing (after ad, ob, inter) ad legendum vēnit — "he came for reading / to read"
Ablative -andō / -endō by/in/through [verb]-ing legendō discimus — "we learn by reading"

All four conjugations — genitive gerund:

Conjugation Genitive Gerund
1st amāre amandī
2nd monēre monendī
3rd regere regendī
3rd-io capere capiendī
4th audīre audiendī

More examples across cases:

  • Gen.: cupidus bellī gerendī — "eager for waging war"
  • Dat.: vacat legendō — "she has leisure for reading"
  • Acc.: ad discendum vēnī — "I came to learn"
  • Acc.: inter agendum — "in the course of acting / while acting"
  • Abl.: scribendō sē exercuit — "He trained himself by writing"

4. Gerund vs. Gerundive — When to Use Each

This is one of the most frequently tested points in Latin grammar. The key rule:

When the gerund would take a direct object, Latin normally replaces it with the gerundive agreeing with that object.

Step by step:

  1. Start with the gerund + object: librum legendum (acc. gerund + object) — grammatically possible but unusual
  2. Replace: make liber (the object) the governing noun, and put the gerundive (legendus) in agreement with it
  3. Result: liber legendus (gerundive agrees with liber in gender/number/case)

Examples of the replacement:

Gerund + Object (unusual) Gerundive Construction (preferred) Meaning
ad legendum librum ad librum legendum for reading the book
causā gerendum bellum causā bellī gerendī for the sake of waging war
cupidus videndum urbem cupidus urbis videndae eager to see the city
per amandōs cīvēs per cīvēs amandōs through loving the citizens

When the gerund is preferred (no object involved):

  • ars amandī — "the art of loving" (no object — gerund stays)
  • legendō discimus — "we learn by reading"
  • ad dormiendum — "for sleeping"

5. Supine

The supine is a 4th-declension verbal noun with only two cases in use. It is rare in classical prose but common in early Latin (Plautus) and in fixed phrases.

Case Ending Use Restriction
Accusative -um (e.g., amātum) purpose after verbs of motion only after motion verbs
Ablative -ū (e.g., amātū) limiting adjective ("in the [verb]-ing") only with certain adjectives

Accusative Supine — Purpose after Motion Verbs:

The accusative supine expresses purpose and is a compact alternative to ad + gerund or a purpose clause. It can only follow verbs of motion (eō, veniō, mittō, etc.).

  • lūsum iērunt — "They went to play" (lit. "They went play-ward")
  • Rōmam spectātum vēnit — "He came to Rome to watch"
  • lēgātōs pācem petītum mīsit — "He sent ambassadors to seek peace"

Ablative Supine — Limiting Adjective:

The ablative supine limits the meaning of an adjective (functioning like an adverb of respect). It appears with adjectives like mīrābilis, horribile, difficile, facile, iūcundus.

  • mīrābile dictū — "wonderful to say / wonderful in the saying"
  • difficile factū — "difficult to do"
  • horribile vīsū — "horrible to look at"
  • optimum factū — "the best thing to do"

Supine vs. Infinitive for purpose: The accusative supine is interchangeable with ad + gerundive after motion verbs, but the supine is more archaic:

  • eō lūsum = eō ad lūdendum — "I go to play"

6. Common Errors

Error 1: Wrong tense of infinitive in indirect statement

  • Wrong: dīcit Caesarem vīcisse (when Caesar is winning right now)
  • Right: dīcit Caesarem vincere (simultaneous action → present infinitive)

Error 2: Ablative instead of dative with passive periphrastic

  • Wrong: ā mē eundum est
  • Right: mihi eundum est — the dative of agent is obligatory with the passive periphrastic

Error 3: Using the gerund when a gerundive is expected

  • Wrong: ad legendum multos librōs (gerund with object)
  • Right: ad multōs librōs legendōs (gerundive agrees with object)

Error 4: Forgetting PPP agreement

  • Wrong: milēs vulnerātum (PPP not agreeing with masculine nominative milēs)
  • Right: milēs vulnerātus (nom. sg. masc. to agree with milēs)

Error 5: Confusing gerund and gerundive

  • Gerundive is an adjective — it modifies a noun and shows necessity
  • Gerund is a noun — it is the subject or object of an idea

Error 6: Using accusative supine with non-motion verbs

  • Wrong: sedet cēnātum — supine of purpose requires motion
  • Right: venit cēnātum — "He came to dine"

7. Worked Examples — Quick Reference

Latin Analysis Translation
puella cantāns PAP, nom. sg. f., attrib. "the singing girl"
oppidō captō PPP, abl. abs. with oppidō "the town having been captured"
Carthāgō dēlenda est passive periphrastic "Carthage must be destroyed"
ars amandī gerund, gen. "the art of loving"
lūsum iērunt acc. supine "they went to play"
mīrābile dictū abl. supine "wonderful to say"
spērō tē ventūrum esse FAP + esse, ACI "I hope that you will come"
librōs legendōs cūrāvit gerundive, acc. pl. "he saw to reading the books"
mihi cēnandum est passive periphrastic, intrans. "I must dine"
Caesar dictūrus surrexit FAP, attributive "Caesar rose, about to speak"
ad urbem videndam iit gerundive, acc. after ad "he went to see the city"
vir fortis laudandus est passive periphrastic "a brave man must be praised"
hostes vincere cupiebant compl. inf. "the enemies wanted to conquer"
dīcō tē errāre ACI, present inf. "I say that you are wrong"
crēdimus eum fugisse ACI, perfect inf. "we believe he fled"

8. Reference