intermediate

Language Learning › Learn Chinese (Mandarin) › HSK Levels › HSK 3 — Elementary A2 ›

HSK 3 Grammar Points

HSK 3 grammar covers approximately 70 core patterns for confident intermediate communication. This level introduces the 把 construction, 被 passive, result/direction/degree/potential complements, and a wider range of complex sentence structures. 1. The 把 (bǎ) Construction 把 preposition moves the object before the verb, emphasizing the disposal, transformation, or placement of the object. 1.1 Core 把 Pattern Pattern Example English S + 把 + O + V + Result 我把书放在桌子上了。 I...

Language Learning › Learn Sindarin › Sindarin Lessons ›

Lesson 17: Verbs — Present Tense

Two Verb Classes Sindarin verbs fall into two main conjugation classes, determined by the form of the infinitive (the citation form): Class 1: Primary Verbs (Consonant-Stem) These verbs have a root ending in a consonant. In the infinitive (dictionary form), they are cited by their bare root with a hyphen: tir- , ped- , cen- , car- . They are the older, "strong" class of verbs. Examples: tir- — to...

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Lesson 22: Irregular Verbs

Introduction In Lessons 17–20 we studied Sindarin verb conjugation systematically: present/aorist, past, future, and continuous. Those lessons focused on regular verbs that follow predictable patterns. Now we must face the inevitable: the most frequently used Sindarin verbs are also the most irregular . This is a universal feature of natural languages. The verbs meaning "to be," "to do," "to go," "to come," and "to give" are almost always irregular in...

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Lesson 20: Verbs — Future Tense

Future Tense Overview Sindarin expresses futurity — actions that will happen — through a dedicated morphological marker. Unlike English, which uses an auxiliary verb ("will"), Sindarin encodes the future directly in the verb's form using the infix/suffix element -tha- (or -thi- in some environments). The future tense marker appears between the verb stem and the personal ending, creating a recognizable three-part structure: [Verb Stem] + [-tha-] + [Personal Suffix] This...

Language Learning › Learn Latin › Latin Proficiency Levels › Intermediate Latin (B1–B2) ›

Lesson 2: Result Clauses and Indirect Questions

Overview Two of Latin's most productive subordinate constructions work through the same subjunctive mood but serve entirely different purposes. Result clauses (also called consecutive clauses) express what actually happened as a consequence. Indirect questions report a question inside a statement. Both require the subjunctive, but their signal words and grammar differ clearly. Part 1: Result Clauses (Consecutive Clauses) The Core Distinction: Result vs. Purpose Purpose clause Result clause Question it...

Language Learning › Learn Latin › Latin Proficiency Levels › Intermediate Latin (B1–B2) ›

Lesson 5: The Ablative Absolute — Mastery

Overview The ablative absolute is Caesar's primary narrative tool. It appears approximately 300 times in the Gallic War — roughly once every two sentences in the narrative sections. Mastering it is not optional for reading classical prose. This lesson covers all six structural patterns, five translation strategies, and how to choose the right one from context. What Is the Ablative Absolute? An ablative absolute (AA) is a noun/pronoun + participle...

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Lesson 13: Prepositions

Prepositions and Mutations In Sindarin, every preposition governs a specific mutation. This is not optional: knowing which mutation a preposition triggers is as fundamental as knowing the preposition's meaning. A Sindarin speaker who uses the right preposition but the wrong mutation produces an error equivalent to using the wrong preposition entirely. The three mutation types that prepositions can trigger are: Soft mutation (lenition) — most prepositions Nasal mutation — primarily...

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Supplement 8: Vocabulary — Emotions & Abstract Concepts

Tolkien's Emotional Vocabulary Tolkien embedded his own theological and philosophical views directly in his Elvish emotional vocabulary. Words like estel (hope as trust, not wishful thinking) carry dense meaning that can only be understood by reading what Tolkien wrote about them in Morgoth's Ring and related texts. Learning Sindarin emotional vocabulary is therefore also a study in Tolkienian theology and moral philosophy. The emotional register of Sindarin is particularly rich...

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Lesson 12: Adjectives & Adverbs

Position: Always After the Noun In Sindarin, adjectives always follow the noun they modify. This is the opposite of English ("great king" vs. aran veleg — literally "king great") and reflects a strong Celtic influence. Welsh, for example, also places adjectives after their nouns: brenin mawr = "great king" (lit. "king great"). This post-nominal position is not optional or stylistic — it is grammatical rule. An adjective placed before its...

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Lesson 26: The Verb To Be — na-

Introduction Every language needs a way to say "X is Y." The verb that links a subject to its predicate — "The king is great," "I am an elf," "It was dark" — is called the copula , from the Latin word for "link" or "bond." In Sindarin, this verb is na- , usually translated as "to be." The copula is one of the most important and most frequently used...

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Lesson 11: Soft Mutation (Lenition)

What Is Lenition? Soft mutation — also called lenition (from Latin lenis , "soft") — is the most common and important sound change in Sindarin. It is not random; it is a systematic, historically conditioned process in which the initial consonant of a word weakens or shifts when a preceding word creates the right phonological environment. Celtic languages show exactly the same feature. Welsh, Irish, and Breton all have systems...

Language Learning › Learn Latin › Latin Proficiency Levels › Intermediate Latin (B1–B2) ›

Lesson 7: All Six Conditional Sentences

Overview Latin conditionals are famously systematic. There are exactly six types , each with a specific combination of moods and tenses that signals the type's meaning. Once you learn the six patterns, you can identify any conditional in Latin and translate it accurately. The types range from stating bare facts to expressing elaborate hypotheticals that run counter to reality. Master Reference Table Type Name si clause Main clause Time Key...

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Supplement 6: Vocabulary — Body Parts & Health

Why This Domain Matters Tolkien's Elves are pre-eminently healers. The Elvish healing arts pervade The Lord of the Rings : the herb athelas (a fully attested Sindarin word), Aragorn's identity as a healer-king, the Houses of Healing in Minas Tirith, and Elrond's role as the great healer of Rivendell. When Éowyn and Faramir are brought to the healing houses, the warden quotes the ancient verse: "The hands of the king...

Language Learning › Learn Latin › Latin Proficiency Levels ›

Intermediate Latin (B1–B2)

Intermediate Latin spans the period from your first encounter with authentic (unmodified) classical texts through the ability to read most classical prose authors with a dictionary at a steady pace. On the ACTFL scale this is Intermediate Low (I-1) through Intermediate High (I-5); on the CEFR scale, B1–B2. In terms of cumulative study time, expect 300–1,200 hours total (including Novice hours) before you reach the top of Intermediate. A typical...

Language Learning › Learn Sindarin › Sindarin Lessons ›

Lesson 21: Conditional & Subjunctive

Introduction In Lessons 17–20 we mastered the four main Sindarin tenses: present, past, future, and the continuous aspect. But Sindarin — like all natural languages — also needs ways to express things that are not simply happening or certain. We need to say "if I were to watch," "I would sing," "may they live long," or "perhaps he comes." These hypothetical, wished-for, or uncertain situations belong to the conditional and...

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Lesson 29: Numbers & Mathematics

Introduction Numbers in Sindarin are among the most thoroughly documented elements of Tolkien's language. Tolkien provided complete cardinal number lists for both Noldorin (the precursor language) and Sindarin in his linguistic papers, published in Parma Eldalamberon (PE) and referenced in The Lord of the Rings appendices. Some number words also appear embedded in attested place names and personal names, giving us independent confirmation. This lesson covers the full Sindarin number...

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Lesson 15: Nasal Mutation

What Is Nasal Mutation? Nasal mutation is the second of Sindarin's three main initial consonant mutation systems (the others being soft mutation and mixed/stop mutation). It is triggered by a preceding nasal consonant — the n of certain grammatical words causes the following initial consonant to shift in a nasal direction. Historically, Old Sindarin had nasal consonants at the end of certain grammatical words (the plural definite article, the dative...

Language Learning › Learn Latin › Latin Proficiency Levels › Intermediate Latin (B1–B2) ›

Lesson 6: Indirect Statement (Accusative + Infinitive)

Overview The accusative + infinitive (ACI, or oratio obliqua ) is Latin's primary way of reporting statements, beliefs, and perceptions. Where English uses a "that" clause ("He said that Caesar was coming"), Latin uses an accusative subject with an infinitive predicate. This construction appears in virtually every page of Cicero and Caesar and is the foundation for understanding reported speech. 1. What Is the ACI? After verbs of saying, thinking,...

Language Learning › Learn Esperanto › CEFR Levels ›

B1 — Intermediate

What You Can Do at B1 At B1 you can: Communicate independently on a wide range of familiar topics without preparation Narrate events, experiences, and plans in detail across all tenses Read authentic Esperanto texts with occasional dictionary use Understand the main points of clear standard Esperanto on familiar topics Write clear text on topics of personal interest Describe experiences and explain opinions and plans Handle most situations while traveling...

Language Learning › Learn Sindarin › Sindarin Lessons ›

Supplement 7: Vocabulary — Military & Combat

Sindarin as a Language of War The Sindar — the Grey Elves of Beleriand — were not a peaceful forest people. They fought the First Age Wars against Morgoth through thousands of years, and many of the most important attested Sindarin words come directly from warfare contexts. The great battles of Beleriand have Sindarin names that are among the most fully attested compound phrases in the entire language corpus. Dagor...

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Lesson 14: Prefixes

Why Prefixes Matter Sindarin builds a large portion of its vocabulary through compounding and prefixation . Unlike languages that rely heavily on suffixes for derivation, Sindarin front-loads its morphology: meaning is frequently added to the beginning of a base word to create a new word with a specialized or extended meaning. This has practical consequences for learners: Knowing prefixes lets you decode unfamiliar names and words you have never seen...

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Lesson 16: Possessive Pronouns

Three Ways to Express Possession in Sindarin Sindarin offers three grammatically distinct strategies for expressing possession or belonging: Possessive suffixes — short endings attached directly to the possessed noun: guren = "my heart" ( gûr + -en ) Independent possessive pronouns — stand-alone words placed after the noun: i gûr nín = "the heart of mine" / "my heart" (emphasized) Genitive construction with en — the particle en (of) links...

Language Learning › Learn Latin › Latin Texts by Level ›

Intermediate Latin Texts

Intermediate Latin Texts This guide covers the standard intermediate Latin reading curriculum — the authors and texts that bridge the gap between LLPSI / novice material and genuinely advanced reading. Each section explains what makes the text approachable or difficult, what grammatical constructions dominate it, and how to read it efficiently. A final section covers how to use DCC commentaries, which are the best free annotated editions available for almost...

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Lesson 25: Negation

Introduction Every language needs ways to say "no," "not," and "don't." Sindarin has a rich and varied set of negation strategies, each used in different grammatical contexts. Crucially, several of these negation forms are directly attested in Tolkien's texts — meaning we have actual, published Sindarin negative sentences to study. This lesson covers all six major negation strategies in Sindarin: ú- — prefix for negating verbs and forming negative compounds...

Language Learning › Learn Sindarin › Sindarin Learning Levels ›

Sindarin Intermediate Level (Peleth — Development)

Level: Intermediate ( Peleth — Development) Time estimate : 100–300 hours (after beginner foundations) Key milestone : Write a short Sindarin paragraph with correct mutations and grammar; read fan Neo-Sindarin texts with occasional dictionary help Prerequisites Before starting intermediate work: Pronounce all Sindarin sounds correctly Know ~200 vocabulary words Understand soft mutation (lenition) — at least for adjective-after-noun Can read A Elbereth Gilthoniel with understanding Know basic noun plurals Goals...

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Lesson 37: Name Making Part 2 — Personal Names

Introduction A Sindarin personal name is a gift — a compressed poem that captures something essential about a person's nature, appearance, lineage, or destiny. Tolkien's Elves treated naming as a high art, and the names he invented for his characters are among the most beautiful words in any constructed language: Galadriel , Lúthien , Celebrimbor , Glorfindel , Tinnúviel . Each is a miniature world of meaning. In this lesson...

Language Learning › Learn Latin › Latin Proficiency Levels › Intermediate Latin (B1–B2) ›

Lesson 1: The Subjunctive — Formation and Purpose Clauses

Why the Subjunctive Exists Latin makes a grammatical distinction that English largely ignores: the difference between stating a fact and expressing something hypothetical, subordinate, or non-factual . The indicative mood states facts. The subjunctive carries everything else — purpose, result, reported speech, conditions, concession, and doubt. You cannot read authentic classical Latin without the subjunctive. It appears in nearly every sentence of Caesar and Cicero. The good news: once you...

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Lesson 36: Name Making Part 1 — Place Names

Introduction Creating Sindarin place names is one of the most rewarding applications of the language — and one of the most treacherous if done without care. Middle-earth fan-fiction, RPG campaigns, and worldbuilding projects all benefit from Elvish names that feel authentic. This lesson teaches you Tolkien's own method for constructing place names: the element vocabulary, the two compound patterns, mutation at the seam, and all the common descriptive qualifiers. The...

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Lesson 28: Timekeeping — Calendar, Months & Time

Introduction Tolkien was a professor of Anglo-Saxon and a deep student of medieval literature, where the rhythms of the year — saints' days, seasons, harvest, frost — permeated everything. He carried this sensibility into his world-building, designing detailed calendrical systems for the peoples of Middle-earth. The Elves, as immortal beings who watched the turning of Ages, had particularly elaborate and meaningful ways of measuring time. This lesson explores Sindarin time...

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Supplement 9: Vocabulary — Expanded Nature & Animals

Nature in Tolkien's Vision Tolkien loved botany, was a passionate naturalist, and grew up in the English countryside. His Elvish nature vocabulary is among the richest and most thoroughly attested domains in Sindarin. The reasons are structural: many attested Sindarin phrases come from place names, and place names in Middle-earth are overwhelmingly about natural features — hills, rivers, trees, stars, weather. Amon Sûl (Hill of Wind), Hithaeglir (Misty Mountains, literally...

Language Learning › Learn Latin › Latin Proficiency Levels › Intermediate Latin (B1–B2) ›

Lesson 3: Fear Clauses and Indirect Commands

Overview Two constructions trip up intermediate students more than almost any other: fear clauses , where ne and ut swap their usual meanings, and indirect commands , where verbs of ordering take ut/ne plus the subjunctive — except for iubeō , which does things differently. Mastering both unlocks a large share of authentic Latin prose. Part 1: Fear Clauses The Paradox of ne and ut with Fear Verbs In purpose...

Language Learning › Learn Chinese (Mandarin) › How to Learn Chinese ›

Learning Roadmap

This roadmap covers the full arc from zero to C2 Mandarin. Each phase has concrete milestones, recommended resources, and realistic time estimates based on 10 hours of study per week. Phase 1: Foundation (0–3 months, A1) Goal: Pinyin mastery, all 4 tones, 299 HSK 1 vocabulary words, core grammar skeleton. What to Study Pinyin system (weeks 1–2) — Every initial (21), every final (36), all tone marks. Use Yoyo Chinese's...

Language Learning › Learn Sindarin › Sindarin Lessons ›

Lesson 19: Intransitive Verbs & Irregular Stems

What Is an Intransitive Verb? An intransitive verb is a verb that does not take a direct object. It describes an action or state that is complete in itself. In Sindarin, this has direct consequences for word order: Transitive (verb + subject + object): Tiron i varad — "I watch the tower" (VSO) Intransitive (verb + subject only): Linna i edhel — "The elf sings" (VS) With an intransitive verb,...

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Lesson 18: Verbs — Past Tense

Two Past Tense Systems Sindarin's past tense divides along the same class lines as the present tense: primary verbs form the past tense one way (strong past), and A-stem verbs form it another (weak past). This parallels the distinction in English between strong verbs ("sing → sang") and weak verbs ("walk → walked"). Class Past Formation Example Primary verbs Nasal infixion (+ sometimes vowel change) tir- → tirn- → tirnant...

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Lesson 7: Plurals Part 2

Review of Lesson 6 Patterns Before advancing, confirm these three core patterns: Pattern Shift Example 1 Final a → ai ; non-final a → e adan → edain 2 Final e → i ; all e s shift edhel → edhil 3 Final o → y ; non-final o → e orod → eryd Everything in Lesson 7 builds on these foundations. Monosyllabic Plurals Monosyllables — words of a single...

Language Learning › Learn Latin › Latin Proficiency Levels › Intermediate Latin (B1–B2) ›

Lesson 8: Reading Caesar — Applied Intermediate Latin

Overview This lesson puts the constructions from Lessons 1–7 to work on an authentic classical text: Caesar's De Bello Gallico (The Gallic War). Caesar's Latin is the standard benchmark for intermediate readers — his sentences are complex but consistent, his vocabulary is restricted, and his grammar is Classical Latin at its most methodical. By the end of this lesson you will have read and analyzed BG 1.1 in full. 1....

Language Learning › Learn Latin › Latin Proficiency Levels › Intermediate Latin (B1–B2) ›

Lesson 4: Cum Clauses

Overview The Latin conjunction cum (sometimes spelled quum in older texts) is one of the most versatile words in the language. It can mean "when," "since," "although," or "at the time when" — and the choice of mood (indicative vs. subjunctive) plus the presence of tamen or other particles determines which meaning applies. Reading Caesar or Livy without mastering cum clauses is nearly impossible: the construction appears hundreds of times....

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Lesson 31: Class Plurals

Introduction In Lessons 6 and 7 we studied the i-affection plural — the standard Sindarin plural formed by vowel changes in the stem ( aran → erain , galadh → gelaidh ). That plural simply signals "more than one X." But Sindarin possesses a second, entirely different plural system called the class plural (or collective plural ). Class plurals do not merely count items; they express a group viewed as...

#intermediate

HSK 3 Grammar Points

Lesson 17: Verbs — Present Tense

Lesson 22: Irregular Verbs

Lesson 20: Verbs — Future Tense

Lesson 2: Result Clauses and Indirect Questions

Lesson 5: The Ablative Absolute — Mastery

Lesson 13: Prepositions

Supplement 8: Vocabulary — Emotions & Abstract Concepts

Lesson 12: Adjectives & Adverbs

Lesson 26: The Verb To Be — na-

Lesson 11: Soft Mutation (Lenition)

Lesson 7: All Six Conditional Sentences

Supplement 6: Vocabulary — Body Parts & Health

Intermediate Latin (B1–B2)

Lesson 21: Conditional & Subjunctive

Lesson 29: Numbers & Mathematics

Lesson 15: Nasal Mutation

Lesson 6: Indirect Statement (Accusative + Infinitive)

B1 — Intermediate

Supplement 7: Vocabulary — Military & Combat

Lesson 14: Prefixes

Lesson 16: Possessive Pronouns

Intermediate Latin Texts

Lesson 25: Negation

Sindarin Intermediate Level (Peleth — Development)

Lesson 37: Name Making Part 2 — Personal Names

Lesson 1: The Subjunctive — Formation and Purpose Clauses

Lesson 36: Name Making Part 1 — Place Names

Lesson 28: Timekeeping — Calendar, Months & Time

Supplement 9: Vocabulary — Expanded Nature & Animals

Lesson 3: Fear Clauses and Indirect Commands

Learning Roadmap

Lesson 19: Intransitive Verbs & Irregular Stems

Lesson 18: Verbs — Past Tense

Lesson 7: Plurals Part 2

Lesson 8: Reading Caesar — Applied Intermediate Latin

Lesson 4: Cum Clauses

Lesson 31: Class Plurals