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Novice Latin (A1–A2)

The Novice stage is the foundation of all Latin study. It corresponds to ACTFL Novice (N-1 through N-4) and CEFR A1–A2, roughly equivalent to the first year of high school or college Latin. In terms of hours, expect 75–300 study hours to move from zero to the end of Novice, depending on your pace, prior language-learning experience, and whether you have a teacher. Self-directed learners typically need the higher end...

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Latin Verbals

Verbals are forms derived from verbs that function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Latin has more verbal forms than almost any other language: six infinitives, four participles, a gerund, a gerundive, and a supine. Mastering them unlocks almost every complex Latin sentence. Quick map : Form Function Time relative to main verb Infinitive noun or indirect statement varies by tense Present Active Participle adjective or adverb simultaneous Perfect Passive Participle...

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DCC Core Vocabulary Band 1 (Words 1–200)

How to Use Band 1 The DCC (Dickinson College Commentaries) Core Latin Vocabulary is a list of the 1,000 most frequently occurring Latin words , compiled by Christopher Francese. Knowing Band 1 (the top 200) gives you coverage of the overwhelming majority of running Latin text — these words recur constantly in Caesar, Cicero, Virgil, and Livy. Study strategy: Learn all 200 words in Band 1 before moving to Band...

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How to Learn Latin — Methodology

Step 1: Choose Your Approach The most important decision: reading-first (LLPSI) or grammar-first (Wheelock) ? Detailed Comparison: LLPSI vs. Wheelock Feature LLPSI Familia Romana Wheelock's Latin Method All in Latin from page 1; reading-based English explanations; grammar-based Best for Self-learners; reading fluency goal; those who struggled with grammar-first Academic Latin I–II; classroom settings; grammar mastery goal Grammar presentation Inductive — you figure out patterns from context Explicit — grammar rules...

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Lesson 4: Cum Clauses

Overview The Latin conjunction cum (sometimes spelled quum in older texts) is one of the most versatile words in the language. It can mean "when," "since," "although," or "at the time when" — and the choice of mood (indicative vs. subjunctive) plus the presence of tamen or other particles determines which meaning applies. Reading Caesar or Livy without mastering cum clauses is nearly impossible: the construction appears hundreds of times....

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Latin Verb Conjugations

Latin verbs are classified into 4 conjugations identified by the ending of the present active infinitive . Every Latin verb has 4 principal parts from which all forms are derived. The 4 Principal Parts The dictionary entry for a regular verb lists 4 principal parts: 1st person singular present active indicative : amō — "I love" Present active infinitive : amāre — "to love" (identifies the conjugation) 1st person singular...

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DCC Latin Core Vocabulary

The DCC Latin Core Vocabulary (compiled by Christopher Francese at Dickinson College, 2012–13) is the gold standard frequency-based vocabulary list for Latin learners. About the DCC Core Property Details Total words ~1,000 headwords (lemmas) Compiled by Christopher Francese, Dickinson College Year 2012–13 Coverage 91% of Caesar's Gallic War ; 81% of Virgil's Aeneid Coverage (general) 70–80% of word forms in typical Latin text Available as Anki deck, physical book, web...

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Advanced Latin Texts

What Makes Advanced Texts Different Advanced Latin texts differ from textbook or intermediate Latin (Caesar, Nepos, Eutropius) in several key ways: 1. Syntactic complexity : Periodic sentences in Cicero run 80–100 words with multiple embedded clauses. The main verb may appear only at the end. Intermediate texts (Caesar) are paratactic — short, coordinated clauses. 2. Poetic license : Poetry (Virgil, Horace, Ovid) inverts normal word order, elides syllables, and uses...

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Lesson 2: Result Clauses and Indirect Questions

Overview Two of Latin's most productive subordinate constructions work through the same subjunctive mood but serve entirely different purposes. Result clauses (also called consecutive clauses) express what actually happened as a consequence. Indirect questions report a question inside a statement. Both require the subjunctive, but their signal words and grammar differ clearly. Part 1: Result Clauses (Consecutive Clauses) The Core Distinction: Result vs. Purpose Purpose clause Result clause Question it...

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Lesson 5: The Ablative Absolute — Mastery

Overview The ablative absolute is Caesar's primary narrative tool. It appears approximately 300 times in the Gallic War — roughly once every two sentences in the narrative sections. Mastering it is not optional for reading classical prose. This lesson covers all six structural patterns, five translation strategies, and how to choose the right one from context. What Is the Ablative Absolute? An ablative absolute (AA) is a noun/pronoun + participle...

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Latin Learning Resources

A curated guide to the best Latin learning resources. Organized by type and annotated with level guidance. Textbooks For Beginners LLPSI — Lingua Latina per se Illustrata (Hans Ørberg) The gold standard. Written entirely in Latin — no English. Inductive grammar (you figure out the patterns from context). Two volumes: Familia Romana (35 chapters, novice–intermediate) and Roma Aeterna (30 chapters, intermediate–advanced). Property Details Approach Natural/reading method; entirely in Latin Level...

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Lesson 4: Present Tense Active (All 4 Conjugations + esse)

Identifying the Four Conjugations Latin verbs belong to one of four conjugations (plus a 3rd-io sub-type), identified by the infinitive ending : Conjugation Infinitive ending Example Meaning 1st -āre amāre to love 2nd -ēre (long ē) monēre to warn, advise 3rd -ere (short e) regere to rule 3rd -io -ere (short e) capere to take, capture 4th -īre audīre to hear The difference between 3rd and 2nd conjugation is the...

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Latin Proficiency Levels

Latin proficiency is measured primarily by the ACTFL Latin Interpretive Reading Assessment (ALIRA) , since Latin has no native speakers and CEFR descriptors for speaking don't directly apply. The practical measure at every level is: which texts can you read, and with how much support? ACTFL / CEFR Level Map Level ACTFL CEFR School Context Hours Novice N-1 through N-4 A1–A2 Latin I 200–400 Intermediate I-1 through I-5 B1–B2 Latin...

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Scholar Latin (C2+)

Scholar Latin (C2+, ACTFL Advanced High to Superior) is the level of graduate reading proficiency. You can read most classical and post-classical Latin texts without aids, produce formal Latin prose, and engage critically with Latin literary style. This requires 2,000–5,000+ hours of dedicated study depending on approach. What You Can Do at Scholar Level Read most classical Latin texts without a dictionary at reading pace Read Tacitus — the hardest...

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Latin Verse Scansion

What Is Quantitative Meter? English poetry runs on stress : we tap our feet to the syllables that receive emphasis — SHALL I comPARE thee TO a SUMmer's DAY? The positions of stressed and unstressed syllables create the rhythm. Latin poetry works completely differently. It runs on quantity — the length of time it takes to pronounce each syllable. A long syllable (–) takes roughly twice as long to say...

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Latin Translation

Translation from Latin to English is the traditional core skill of Latin study. It is a valuable tool for checking comprehension and developing grammatical precision, but it is a separate skill from reading — and confusing the two is one of the most common obstacles in Latin learning. Translation vs. Reading Skill Process Typical Rate Primary Goal Translation Decode each word; parse each form; produce idiomatic English 5–20 words/min Grammar...

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Lesson 19: The Subjunctive Mood — Present and Imperfect

Overview The subjunctive mood expresses actions that are not simply stated as facts (indicative) or commanded (imperative), but are subjective — possible, desired, feared, doubted, or subordinated to another clause. At novice level, you learn two tenses of the subjunctive (present and imperfect) and two main uses: purpose clauses ( ut/nē ) and indirect commands ( iubeō/rogō/hortor + ut ). 1. What the Subjunctive Expresses The subjunctive is required in...

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Lesson 12: The Relative Pronoun (quī, quae, quod)

Overview A relative clause is a subordinate clause that describes or identifies a noun (its antecedent ). It is introduced by a relative pronoun. The Latin relative pronoun quī, quae, quod (who, which, that) must agree with its antecedent in gender and number , but it takes its case from its function inside the relative clause . This double rule is the central challenge of the relative pronoun. 1. Full...

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Latin Roots in English

Over 60% of English vocabulary derives from Latin — directly or through intermediaries — rising to 90%+ in technical, scientific, legal, and medical vocabulary . Learning Latin roots is one of the highest-return investments in English comprehension, because the same root powers dozens of words. 1. How Latin Entered English — Three Paths Latin did not enter English in a single wave. It traveled by three distinct routes, each leaving...

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Speaking Latin (Active Latin)

Speaking Latin is optional but powerful. The Active Latin movement has demonstrated that using Latin as a spoken language accelerates reading fluency by building intuitive grammar feel that drilling alone doesn't provide. Why Speaking Helps Reading Automaticity : Speaking forces you to produce the correct form instantly — no time to consciously parse Input volume : Conversations produce 60 words/minute of Latin vs. 5–10 via translation Grammar internalization : You...

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Latin Vocabulary

How Latin Vocabulary Works Unlike HSK (which assigns vocabulary to levels), Latin vocabulary is organized primarily by corpus frequency — how often words appear across all classical texts. The key insight from research: the ~1,000 most frequent Latin words cover 70–80% of word forms in any typical Latin text. Specifically: DCC Core 1,000 words cover 91% of Caesar's Gallic War DCC Core 1,000 words cover 81% of Virgil's Aeneid This...

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Latin Skills

The 6 Core Latin Skills Skill Description When to develop Reading Direct comprehension of Latin text From week 1 Translation Latin → English rendition From week 1 (supplement to reading) Grammar Analysis Parsing morphological forms From week 1 Composition English → Latin writing Advanced (year 2+) Speaking Active Latin conversation Optional; any level Listening Latin audio comprehension From week 1 (passive) Scansion Marking quantitative meter When reading poetry Why Separate...

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Lesson 7: All Six Conditional Sentences

Overview Latin conditionals are famously systematic. There are exactly six types , each with a specific combination of moods and tenses that signals the type's meaning. Once you learn the six patterns, you can identify any conditional in Latin and translate it accurately. The types range from stating bare facts to expressing elaborate hypotheticals that run counter to reality. Master Reference Table Type Name si clause Main clause Time Key...

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Lesson 2: First Declension Nouns

What Case Endings Do In English, word order tells you who does what: "The girl loves the poet" ≠ "The poet loves the girl." In Latin, case endings carry that information. Word order is flexible and used for emphasis, not grammar. The sentence Puella poētam amat and Poētam puella amat both mean "The girl loves the poet" — the endings -a (nominative, subject) and -am (accusative, direct object) tell you...

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Learn Latin

Latin is a 2,000-year-old language spoken across the Roman Empire and preserved in an unbroken literary tradition from Plautus (200 BC) through the Renaissance and into the present day. It is the ancestor of French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian, and the source of over 60% of English vocabulary — rising to 90%+ in technical and scientific fields. It is also a living language, spoken today by scholars and enthusiasts...

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Intermediate Latin (B1–B2)

Intermediate Latin spans the period from your first encounter with authentic (unmodified) classical texts through the ability to read most classical prose authors with a dictionary at a steady pace. On the ACTFL scale this is Intermediate Low (I-1) through Intermediate High (I-5); on the CEFR scale, B1–B2. In terms of cumulative study time, expect 300–1,200 hours total (including Novice hours) before you reach the top of Intermediate. A typical...

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Advanced Latin (C1)

Advanced Latin (ACTFL Advanced A-1, CEFR C1) corresponds to approximately Latin IV in school or 1,000–1,800 total study hours. At this level you can read unadapted classical prose with a dictionary and begin engaging seriously with Latin poetry. What You Can Do at Advanced Level Read unadapted Caesar fluently with dictionary; sight-read selected passages without it Read Cicero's speeches (In Catilinam, Pro Archia) and philosophical works with steady dictionary use...

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Lesson 13: 4th and 5th Declension Nouns

Overview The 4th and 5th declensions are the smallest declension groups in Latin, but they include some extremely common words — manus (hand), domus (house), exercitus (army), rēs (thing), and diēs (day). Learning these paradigms gives you the final pieces of the Latin noun system. 1. Fourth Declension — Masculine/Feminine The 4th declension is identified by -ūs in the genitive singular . Most nouns are masculine; a few are feminine...

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Lesson 17: Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

Overview Latin adjectives have three degrees of comparison : positive (good), comparative (better), and superlative (best). Adverbs derived from adjectives also have comparative and superlative forms. Latin offers two constructions for expressing "than": the particle quam and the ablative of comparison. 1. Comparative Adjectives — Regular Formation Add -ior (M/F) and -ius (N) to the positive stem (found by removing -is from the genitive singular): Positive Stem Comparative (M/F /...

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Latin Adjectives

Latin adjectives must agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case — but they do not need to be in the same declension as the noun. An adjective from the 1st-2nd declension can modify a 3rd-declension noun. 1st–2nd Declension Adjectives ( bonus, bona, bonum ) The most common adjective type. Masculine follows 2nd declension (-us/-er); feminine follows 1st declension (-a); neuter follows 2nd declension (-um). Case Masc....

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Lesson 6: Indirect Statement (Accusative + Infinitive)

Overview The accusative + infinitive (ACI, or oratio obliqua ) is Latin's primary way of reporting statements, beliefs, and perceptions. Where English uses a "that" clause ("He said that Caesar was coming"), Latin uses an accusative subject with an infinitive predicate. This construction appears in virtually every page of Cicero and Caesar and is the foundation for understanding reported speech. 1. What Is the ACI? After verbs of saying, thinking,...

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Lesson 11: Pronouns — Personal, Reflexive, and Demonstrative

Overview Latin has a rich pronoun system. Personal pronouns cover 1st and 2nd person fully; for 3rd person Latin uses demonstratives. The reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of the main clause. Demonstratives hic , ille , and is fill different roles depending on proximity and emphasis. 1. Personal Pronouns (1st and 2nd Person) Personal pronouns are declined like nouns. Subject pronouns are usually omitted when the verb ending...

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Latin Pronouns

Personal Pronouns Latin has first and second person personal pronouns; the third person is expressed by demonstratives (there is no personal pronoun for "he/she/it"). Case 1st sg. 2nd sg. 1st pl. 2nd pl. Nom. ego tū nōs vōs Gen. meī tuī nostrum/nostrī vestrum/vestrī Dat. mihi tibi nōbīs vōbīs Acc. mē tē nōs vōs Abl. mē tē nōbīs vōbīs Note : nostrum (partitive gen.) vs. nostrī (objective gen.): memor nostrī —...

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Lesson 10: Introduction to the Dative and Ablative Cases

Overview The dative and ablative are the two cases most often confused by beginners — not because they look alike (their endings are usually distinct), but because each has several different uses. This lesson maps out the most important uses of both cases at the novice level. The Dative Case 1. Dative of Indirect Object The most common use: the dative marks the person to whom or for whom something...

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Intermediate Latin Texts

Intermediate Latin Texts This guide covers the standard intermediate Latin reading curriculum — the authors and texts that bridge the gap between LLPSI / novice material and genuinely advanced reading. Each section explains what makes the text approachable or difficult, what grammatical constructions dominate it, and how to read it efficiently. A final section covers how to use DCC commentaries, which are the best free annotated editions available for almost...

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Lesson 16: The Perfect Passive and Pluperfect

Overview Latin uses compound tenses to express completed action in the passive voice and action prior to another past action. These compound tenses are built from participles + forms of esse . Understanding these tenses requires knowing: (1) the perfect passive participle (PPP = 4th principal part), and (2) forms of esse in present, imperfect, and future. 1. The Perfect Passive Participle (PPP) The PPP is the 4th principal part...

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Lesson 5: Adjective Agreement (1st–2nd Declension)

The Agreement Rule Latin adjectives must agree with their noun in three features: Gender (masculine / feminine / neuter) Case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative) Number (singular / plural) Crucially, agreement does not mean the adjective uses the same declension as the noun. A masculine noun of the 1st declension ( nauta ) paired with an adjective will take the masculine form of the adjective, which uses 2nd-declension endings...

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Latin Texts by Level

Knowing which texts to read at each level is crucial — starting with texts that are too hard wastes time and destroys motivation; texts that are too easy don't build skill. The Reading Progression Novice → LLPSI Familia Romana (specially written Latin) → Latin novellas (100-200 unique words) Novice–Int. → Eutropius (bridge text — very clear simple prose) → Cornelius Nepos (bridge text — accessible biographies) Intermediate → Caesar, Gallic...

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Lesson 1: The Subjunctive — Formation and Purpose Clauses

Why the Subjunctive Exists Latin makes a grammatical distinction that English largely ignores: the difference between stating a fact and expressing something hypothetical, subordinate, or non-factual . The indicative mood states facts. The subjunctive carries everything else — purpose, result, reported speech, conditions, concession, and doubt. You cannot read authentic classical Latin without the subjunctive. It appears in nearly every sentence of Caesar and Cicero. The good news: once you...

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Lesson 18: Participles — Active and Passive

Overview Latin has four participles — verbal adjectives that combine properties of a verb (tense, voice) with properties of an adjective (gender, number, case agreement). They allow Latin to compress complex ideas into participial phrases. The most important construction involving participles is the ablative absolute . 1. The Four Participles at a Glance Participle Tense/Voice Stem Endings PAP (Present Active) ongoing/simultaneous + active present stem 3rd decl., one-term. (-ns/-ntis) PPP...

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Lesson 20: Reading Connected Latin — Putting It All Together

Overview This lesson is a review and synthesis . You have now covered all the grammar of the novice curriculum. The goal here is not to introduce new forms but to read continuous Latin, parse every form, and verify that the pieces fit together. Work through both passages carefully before looking at the analysis. 1. What You Have Learned in Lessons 1–20 Lesson Topic 1–5 (assumed prior) 1st–2nd declension nouns...

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Lesson 15: Passive Voice — Present, Imperfect, and Future

Overview In the passive voice , the grammatical subject receives the action rather than performing it. Latin expresses the passive by changing the verb endings. The subject is acted upon; if the performer of the action is mentioned, it appears in the ablative (with a/ab for a person, without a preposition for an instrument). 1. What Passive Means Active Passive Puer puellam amat. (The boy loves the girl.) Puella ā...

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Latin Pronunciation

Latin has three main pronunciation systems in use today. Understanding the differences matters for choosing the right one and for understanding resources that use a different system. The Three Pronunciation Systems System Also Called Used By Classical (Restored) Restored Classical Universities, Active Latin movement, ScorpioMartianus, Latinitium Ecclesiastical (Italian) Church Latin, Roman Pronunciation Catholic liturgy, Vatican, Gregorian chant, choir Traditional English Old English Pronunciation Largely obsolete; historical legal/medical terminology Recommendation :...

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Lesson 9: Perfect Tense Active (The 3rd Principal Part)

The Four Principal Parts Every Latin verb is listed in dictionaries with four principal parts because each tells you something you cannot predict from the others: Part Example ( amāre ) What it gives you 1st — 1sg present active amō present, imperfect, future active stems 2nd — infinitive amāre conjugation identification 3rd — 1sg perfect active amāvī perfect, pluperfect, future perfect active 4th — perfect passive participle amātum passive...

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Lesson 3: Second Declension Nouns (Masculine and Neuter)

Overview The second declension is recognized by the genitive singular ending -ī . It contains two major subgroups: Masculine nouns ending in -us or -er in the nominative singular Neuter nouns ending in -um in the nominative singular 2nd Declension Masculine: servus, servī, m. Case Singular Plural Nominative serv us serv ī Genitive serv ī serv ōrum Dative serv ō serv īs Accusative serv um serv ōs Ablative serv ō...

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Lesson 6: The Accusative and Genitive Cases — Deeper Dive

The Accusative Case The accusative is the busiest case in Latin. Its core function is the direct object , but it has several other important uses. 1. Direct Object The accusative marks the receiver of the verb's action. Puella librum legit. — The girl reads the book . Agricolae agrum colunt. — The farmers cultivate the field . 2. Accusative with Prepositions (Motion and Extension) Prepositions that take the accusative...

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DCC Core Vocabulary Band 2 (Words 201–500)

Band 2 covers words ranked 201–500 in the DCC Latin Core — the high-frequency vocabulary that unlocks fluent reading of Caesar, Cicero, Livy, and Virgil. Master these after Band 1 is solid. The 300 words here are grouped in sets of 50 for spaced-repetition chunking. Group 1 — Words 201–250: More Core Verbs # Latin Entry Form Part of Speech English 201 currō currō, currere, cucurrī, cursum verb (3rd conj.)...

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Latin Composition

Latin composition — writing sentences or passages in Latin — is the hardest Latin skill and the one most likely to produce deep grammatical internalization. It forces you to make active choices about constructions rather than recognizing them passively. When to Start Composition Don't start too early : Composition requires a strong grammar foundation. Attempting it at Novice level produces discouragement without enough grammar knowledge to self-correct. Recommended : Begin...

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Thematic Latin Vocabulary

Thematic vocabulary helps learners build topic-specific word groups. All nouns include their genitive singular and grammatical gender. Verbs include their four principal parts. Adverbs and indeclinables are noted as such. 1. Family and Relationships ( familia et cognātio ) Latin Gen. / Inf. Gender English Notes pater patris m. father 3rd decl. māter mātris f. mother 3rd decl. fīlius fīliī m. son 2nd decl.; voc. fīlī fīlia fīliae f. daughter...

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Lesson 3: Fear Clauses and Indirect Commands

Overview Two constructions trip up intermediate students more than almost any other: fear clauses , where ne and ut swap their usual meanings, and indirect commands , where verbs of ordering take ut/ne plus the subjunctive — except for iubeō , which does things differently. Mastering both unlocks a large share of authentic Latin prose. Part 1: Fear Clauses The Paradox of ne and ut with Fear Verbs In purpose...

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Lesson 1: The Latin Alphabet, Pronunciation, and Macrons

The Latin Alphabet Classical Latin uses 23 letters — the same set as English minus W . Two pairs of letters are variant forms of the same letter: I / J — In classical texts, I does the work of both. J was introduced by later scribes. Classical Latin uses I everywhere ( Iulius , not Julius ). V / U — Classical Latin uses V for both the vowel...

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Latin Noun Declensions

Latin nouns decline for case (grammatical function) and number (singular/plural). There are 7 cases and 5 declension patterns, identified by the genitive singular ending . The 5 Declensions at a Glance Declension Gen. Sg. Ending Typical Gender Dictionary Entry Example 1st -ae Feminine (exceptions: nauta, -ae m.; agricola, -ae m.) puella, -ae, f. girl 2nd -ī Masculine (-us/-er) or Neuter (-um) dominus, -ī, m. / bellum, -ī, n. master /...

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Lesson 7: Imperfect and Future Tense Active

The Imperfect Tense What the Imperfect Means The imperfect (Latin imperfectum = "unfinished") expresses: Ongoing or continuous past action : "I was loving," "she was ruling" Habitual or repeated past action : "he used to warn," "they would sing every day" Attempted action : "I was trying to take" (conative imperfect) The imperfect is never a completed event. That is the job of the perfect tense (Lesson 9). The Imperfect...

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Living Latin (Active Latin Movement)

The Active Latin (or Living Latin) movement treats Latin as a spoken, living language rather than a subject for grammar-translation exercises alone. Drawing on second-language acquisition research — particularly Krashen's comprehensible input hypothesis — practitioners argue that meaningful exposure to spoken and written Latin builds reading fluency more efficiently than explicit grammar drilling alone. Core Philosophy Research finding : Students encounter ~60 words per minute of spoken Latin vs. 5–10...

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Lesson 8: Third Declension Nouns

Overview The third declension is the largest and most varied Latin declension. Unlike the first and second, third-declension nouns have many different nominative singular forms. The genitive singular is always your anchor: it ends in -is and reveals the true stem. Rule: Strip -is from the genitive singular to get the stem, then add endings. mīles, mīlitis → stem mīlit- rēx, rēgis → stem rēg- nox, noctis → stem noct-...

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Lesson 8: Reading Caesar — Applied Intermediate Latin

Overview This lesson puts the constructions from Lessons 1–7 to work on an authentic classical text: Caesar's De Bello Gallico (The Gallic War). Caesar's Latin is the standard benchmark for intermediate readers — his sentences are complex but consistent, his vocabulary is restricted, and his grammar is Classical Latin at its most methodical. By the end of this lesson you will have read and analyzed BG 1.1 in full. 1....

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Novice Latin Texts

Novice Texts: Specially Written and Bridge Texts This page covers the complete reading landscape for novice Latin learners: from the most famous reading-method textbook (LLPSI), through the growing world of Latin novellas, to bridge texts that lead into authentic classical prose. The goal is to build enough fluency through comprehensible input so that you can transition to real Latin authors without constant dictionary lookups grinding you to a halt. LLPSI...

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Latin Frequency Vocabulary — Top 200

A frequency list ranks words by how often they appear in a corpus of texts. For Latin, frequency lists are among the most powerful learning tools available, because a small number of words accounts for a large share of any text. This page covers the science behind frequency learning, the major lists, the top words by category, and practical acquisition strategies. 1. What a Frequency List Is and How to...

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Reading Latin

Reading is the primary skill in Latin. The goal is to move from parsing each word consciously to comprehending Latin directly — the way a skilled reader reads their native language. Two Modes of Reading Mode Process Rate Used by Parsing/Translation Identify each form → translate → parse syntax → produce English 5–10 words/minute All beginners Direct Reading Comprehend Latin meaning directly without English mediation 30–60+ words/minute Advanced learners The...

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Listening to Latin

Listening to Latin is the easiest skill to develop passively — you can do it while commuting, exercising, or cooking. Regular Latin audio exposure accelerates grammar internalization and builds intuitive feel for Latin word patterns. Getting Started with Latin Audio Key insight : Even if you can't understand everything, Latin audio exposure helps. Hearing correct Latin intonation, rhythm, and word patterns primes your brain to process Latin more fluently when...

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Lesson 14: Third Declension Adjectives

Overview You already know 1st/2nd declension adjectives ( bonus/bona/bonum ). A large and important group of Latin adjectives follows 3rd declension patterns. These adjectives are classified by how many distinct nominative singular forms they have: three-termination, two-termination, or one-termination. All share common 3rd-declension endings in the other cases, but with i-stem characteristics. 1. Two-Termination: fortis, forte (brave, strong) One form for M and F nominative singular, another for N. This...

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Latin Numbers

Cardinal Numbers (How Many?) 1–20 with Notes # Latin Abbreviation Declines? 1 ūnus, ūna, ūnum I Yes (pronominal: gen. -īus, dat. -ī) 2 duo, duae, duo II Yes (see below) 3 trēs, tria III Yes (3rd decl. i-stem adj.) 4 quattuor IV (IIII) No 5 quīnque V No 6 sex VI No 7 septem VII No 8 octō VIII No 9 novem IX (VIIII) No 10 decem X No 11...

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Latin Grammar

Latin grammar is morphologically rich — every noun, adjective, and pronoun marks case and number; every verb marks person, number, tense, mood, and voice. This explicit marking makes word order highly flexible (unlike English) and meaning precise even in complex sentences. Grammar Sections Section Topics Nouns 5 declensions, 7 cases, gender, paradigm tables Adjectives 1st–2nd decl., 3rd decl., comparison (pos./comp./superl.) Pronouns Personal, reflexive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, indefinite Verbs 4 conjugations,...

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Latin Syntax

Latin syntax is where the language becomes most challenging and most powerful. This page is a comprehensive reference covering case usage, all major subordinate constructions, indirect discourse, conditionals, and the subjunctive — with worked examples from classical authors throughout. 1. Nominative and Vocative Nominative The nominative is the case of the subject and the predicate noun/adjective . Subject : the noun performing the action of the verb. Latin Translation Caesar...

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Lesson 14: Third Declension Adjectives

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