#grammar
〜ものがある — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜ものがある Structure: Adjective (plain) / Verb (plain) + ものがある Formality: Standard to Formal Meaning: "there is something ~ about it, it has a quality that is ~" Explanation 〜ものがある is used to express that something has a deep, somewhat indefinable quality that the speaker senses or recognizes. It often implies that the speaker is making a personal, subjective evaluation, and that the quality in question is notable or impactful...
〜にもかかわらず — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜にもかかわらず Formality Level: Formal / Semi-formal — news articles, business writing, academic prose, formal speeches Classical/Literary Origin: かかわらず is the negative form of かかわる ("to be related to, to concern, to be bound by"). The full form にもかかわらず literally means "even without being bound by ~" or "without letting ~ affect the outcome." It entered standard written Japanese through formal registers and remains strongly associated with careful, edited prose. Structure...
〜やすい/〜にくい — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜やすい / 〜にくい Structure: Verb (masu-stem) + やすい → "easy to do ~, prone to ~" (i-adjective) Verb (masu-stem) + にくい → "hard/difficult to do ~" (i-adjective) Formality: Standard (spoken and written) Meaning: 〜やすい: "easy to ~, tends to ~" / 〜にくい: "hard to ~, difficult to ~" Explanation These patterns describe an inherent quality of an object or situation — how easy or difficult it is to perform...
〜てこそ / 〜ばこそ (precisely because — emphatic reason)
〜てこそ / 〜ばこそ Formality Level: Semi-formal to Formal — speeches, literary prose, formal expression of values Classical/Literary Origin: こそ is one of the most ancient emphatic particles in Japanese, appearing throughout the Man'yoshu (8th century) and the Kokinwakashū (905 CE). In classical Japanese grammar, こそ triggers a special verb ending called 已然形 ( izenkei , "realis form"), creating the classical construction verb + こそ + already-realised-form. In modern Japanese, this...
〜といえども (although / even though — formal concessive)
〜といえども Formality Level: Formal / Literary — formal speeches, legal documents, academic argumentation Classical Origin: といえども derives from と (quotative particle) + 言え (imperative/conditional form of 言う, "to say") + ども (classical concessive particle). In classical Japanese, ども was the standard concessive particle (equivalent to modern けれども). The literal meaning is "even if one were to say that X." The pattern appears throughout medieval Japanese legal and philosophical texts and...
〜てならない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern V-て form + ならない い-adj (く form) + てならない な-adj (で form) + ならない The verb or adjective before てならない describes an emotion, desire, or sensation that arises spontaneously and overwhelmingly. The subject of this emotion is typically the speaker (first person). Formality Formal / Slightly Written . てならない carries a somewhat literary or formal nuance. It is more elevated than てたまらない (which is more conversational) and てしかたがない (which...
〜だけでなく — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun + だけでなく、~ も + [verb/predicate] V-plain / Adj-plain + だけでなく、~ も + [verb/predicate] Noun + だけでなく(て) + [verb/predicate] (te-form variant) The element after だけでなく (marked with も) is the additional item beyond the first. Both items share the same predicate. Formality Neutral — usable in both casual and formal contexts . だけでなく is the most versatile of the "not only ~ but also" patterns. It appears in casual...
〜のみならず — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜のみならず (nomi narazu) Structure Noun + のみならず Verb (plain form) + のみならず I-adjective (plain form) + のみならず Na-adjective + である + のみならず (formal) Formality Level Highly formal — primarily written Japanese. Academic papers, official reports, government announcements, newspaper editorials. The spoken/informal equivalent is 〜だけでなく. Meaning "Not only X, but also Y." Expands the scope of a statement beyond what was initially stated, adding Y as an additional scope. The...
〜がちだ — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜がちだ / 〜がちな Structure: Verb (masu-stem) + がちだ Noun + がちだ 〜がちな + Noun (attributive) Formality: Standard (spoken and written) Meaning: "tend to ~, be prone to ~, inclined to ~" (usually negative or undesirable) Explanation 〜がちだ expresses a tendency or proneness that is usually viewed negatively or as a problem. It does not mean simply "often" — it carries the nuance that this tendency is unfortunate, undesirable, or...
〜ことなく (without doing — literary absolute negation)
〜ことなく Formality Level: Literary / Formal — literary prose, formal writing, academic writing Classical Origin: ことなく derives from the classical nominaliser こと (the abstract event/fact of doing X) + なく (classical negative gerundive of ない). The construction means "without the event/fact of doing X occurring." The classical nominaliser こと adds an abstract, distanced quality that makes ことなく more literary and absolute than the functional negative ずに. Structure Form Example V...
只要…就… (zhǐyào...jiù...) — as long as... then...
只要…就… (zhǐyào...jiù...) 只要…就… expresses a conditional relationship where 只要 introduces the one condition that is sufficient for the result in the 就 clause to follow. It emphasizes that the condition is minimal: this alone is enough. Structure 只要 + [Condition] + 就 + [Result] The subject may appear before 只要 or between 只要 and the condition. Example Sentences 只要每天练习，就能进步。 Zhǐyào měitiān liànxí, jiù néng jìnbù. As long as you practice...
〜ずにはおかない — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜ずにはおかない Formality Level: Formal / Semi-formal — literary fiction, formal written prose, formal speeches, editorial writing Classical/Literary Origin: This pattern combines ず (classical negative auxiliary, equivalent to ない), に (here used before a predicate in a fixed negative pattern), は (contrastive topic), and おかない (negative of おく — "to leave as is, to let be"). The literal parsing is "cannot leave it in the state of not doing ~" or...
〜だに (even / just — literary minimum marker)
〜だに Formality Level: Literary / Formal — literary prose, classical quotations, formal writing Classical Origin: だに is one of the oldest particles in Japanese, appearing in the Manyoshu (8th century) and consistently throughout Heian classical literature. In classical Japanese, だに functioned as a "minimum marker" — marking the minimum, lowest, or most basic case on a scale: "even just X (let alone anything more)." It often appeared in emotional or...
〜に伴い / 〜に伴って — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜に伴い / 〜に伴って (ni tomonai / ni tomonatte) Structure Noun + に伴い / に伴って (followed by verb or clause) Verb (dictionary form) + に伴い / に伴って Noun + に伴う + Noun (attributive) Formality Level Formal — used in academic writing, government reports, news articles, business analysis. 〜に伴い is slightly more formal than 〜に伴って. Meaning "Along with X," "accompanying X," "as X occurs/progresses, Y simultaneously changes." Expresses a causal or...
〜に応じて — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜に応じて / 〜に応じた Structure: Noun + に応じて / Noun + に応じた + Noun (attributive) Formality: Formal / Business Meaning: "in response to ~, according to ~, adapted to ~, depending on ~" Explanation 〜に応じて expresses an adaptive, appropriate response to conditions, needs, or demands. It carries the nuance that something is deliberately adjusted or tailored to fit varying circumstances. The response is intentional — you are responding appropriately to...
JLPT N3 Lesson 8: Workplace and Formal Japanese
Overview Workplace Japanese is one of the most practically important domains at the N3 level. Even if you never plan to work in Japan, N3 reading passages frequently feature formal business communication: emails, meeting notes, reports, and phone call exchanges. More importantly, the grammar patterns of workplace Japanese—particularly polite request forms and the basics of keigo (敬語, honorific speech)—serve as a gateway to the full N2 and N1 honorific system....
〜ずにはいられない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜ずにはいられない / 〜ずにはいられません (zu ni wa irarenai) Structure Verb (negative stem/ず-form) + にはいられない Formation: Take the verb ない-form, replace ない with ず → add にはいられない 泣く → 泣か(ない) → 泣かず + にはいられない → 泣かずにはいられない 笑う → 笑わ(ない) → 笑わず + にはいられない → 笑わずにはいられない Irregular: する → せ + ずにはいられない → せずにはいられない Formality Level Neutral to formal — used in both spoken and written Japanese. The literary/poetic quality makes it...
〜ともあろう (for someone of one's standing to — indignation)
〜ともあろう Formality Level: Formal / Literary — formal criticism, editorial writing, formal speech Classical Origin: ともあろう derives from とも (inclusive particle と + も) + あろう (volitional/presumptive form of ある, "to be"). The literal meaning is something like "even for something that would be X" — implying that X sets a high standard that the subsequent action fails to meet. The pattern carries a strong evaluative charge: the speaker's expectation,...
〜次第 — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜次第 Structure: Meaning 1: Verb (masu-stem) + 次第 → "as soon as [action completes]" Meaning 2: Noun + 次第だ / Noun + 次第で(は) → "it depends on ~, it is up to ~" Formality: Formal (Meaning 1 especially used in business) Meaning: As soon as ~ / Depends entirely on ~ Explanation 〜次第 has two distinct meanings at N3: Meaning 1 — "As soon as" (verb masu-stem + 次第):...
〜に至って / 〜に至っては — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜に至って / 〜に至っては Formality Level: Formal / Written — news reporting, editorial prose, legal documents, formal speeches, literary fiction Classical/Literary Origin: 至る (itaru) means "to reach, to arrive at, to come to (an extreme point)." The pattern に至って uses the te-form of 至る after に (indicating the point reached) to express "having reached the point of ~" or "now that it has come to ~." The related 〜に至っては adds a...
〜うる / 〜える — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜うる / 〜える / 〜得る (uru / eru / uri-uru) Also written: 〜得る (kanji form, read うる or える) Structure Verb (masu-stem) + うる / える Common form: 起こり得る (okori-uru), 考え得る (kangae-uru), あり得る (ari-uru/ari-eru) Negative: 〜得ない / あり得ない (cannot possibly) Special case: ある → あり得る (arieri) = "can possibly exist/happen" Formality Level Formal/literary — primarily written Japanese. Common in academic papers, legal documents, policy writing, official announcements. 〜うる is...
JLPT N3 Lesson 2: Causal Expressions Deep Dive
Overview Causation is one of the most grammatically rich domains in Japanese. At N5 and N4, you learned 〜から and 〜ので as the workhorses of expressing reason and cause. At N3, the system expands dramatically. You now need to master 〜ため(に), which carries both purpose and cause meanings depending on the tense of the preceding verb; 〜によって and 〜による, which express the means, agent, or cause of something; and 〜ことから,...
〜のみか (not only... but also — literary escalation)
〜のみか Formality Level: Formal / Literary — literary prose, editorials, formal written analysis Classical Origin: のみか combines the classical limiting particle のみ ( nomi , "only/merely" — equivalent to modern だけ) with the classical interrogative/exclamative か. In classical Japanese, のみか expressed "not just X, but [even more surprisingly] Y" — a rhetorical escalation structure. The pattern appears in kanbun (classical Chinese) influenced writing and in Heian literary prose. Modern のみか...
〜とは限らない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜とは限らない / 〜とは限りません (to wa kagiranai / to wa kagirimasen) Structure Verb (plain form) + とは限らない I-adjective (plain form) + とは限らない Na-adjective + だ/である + とは限らない Noun + だ/である + とは限らない Often preceded by 必ずしも (not necessarily) for emphasis Formality Level Neutral to formal — used in both spoken and written Japanese. Common in academic argumentation, editorial writing, logical reasoning. Meaning "Is not necessarily X," "is not always X,"...
〜こそ / 〜だからこそ — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜こそ / 〜だからこそ / 〜てこそ (koso / da kara koso / te koso) Structure Noun + こそ (emphatic focus on noun) Verb (て-form) + こそ (only by doing X can Y be achieved) 〜だからこそ (precisely because of this/that reason) 〜からこそ (precisely because — attaches to various forms) Formality Level All registers — こそ appears in casual speech, formal writing, official speeches. More emphatic uses tend toward formal/written. Meaning 〜こそ:...
〜にして (being X and also / at that very point — formal dual)
〜にして Formality Level: Formal / Literary — formal speeches, biographies, literary prose, academic writing Classical Origin: にして derives from classical Japanese に ( ni , locative/instrumental particle) + して (classical gerundive/connective form of する). In classical Japanese, にして expressed simultaneous states or conditions: "being in the state of X, and also..." This pattern appears in the Manyoshu and throughout Heian-period prose. Modern にして retains this dual-state function and also expresses...
〜に沿って / 〜に沿った — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜に沿って / 〜に沿った (ni sotte / ni sotta) Structure Noun + に沿って (followed by verb) Noun + に沿った + Noun (attributive — modifying a noun) Formality Level Formal to neutral — used in business planning, policy documents, academic discourse. Also used in everyday formal speech. Meaning "In line with X," "along X," "following the course of X." Expresses that an action proceeds consistently with a pre-defined direction, plan, policy,...
〜ものとする / 〜ものとして (stipulated that / assuming)
〜ものとする / 〜ものとして Formality Level: Formal — legal documents, contracts, regulations, academic writing Classical Origin: Derives from the classical nominaliser もの (物/者) + the formal prescriptive する. In Meiji-era legal drafting, 〜ものとす ( mono to su ) was standardised as the formula for legal prescriptions. Modern 〜ものとする retains this function essentially unchanged. Structure Pattern Form Example 〜ものとする V-plain + ものとする 報告するものとする 〜ものとする Noun + である + ものとする 適法であるものとする 〜ものとして V-plain...
〜にほかならない (nothing other than / is precisely)
〜にほかならない Formality Level: Formal / Literary — academic writing, editorials, formal speech, rhetorical prose Classical Origin: ほかならない derives from ほか ( hoka , "other/else") + ならない (classical negative of なる, "to become"). Literally: "it does not become anything else." The pattern 〜にほかならない thus means "it is nothing other than X" — a categorical assertion of identity or causation that admits no alternative interpretation. Structure Form Example Noun + にほかならない 責任放棄にほかならない...
〜かねる / 〜かねない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Patterns 〜かねる (kaneru) — polite inability/reluctance 〜かねない (kanenai) — risk/negative possibility Structure 〜かねる: Verb (masu-stem) + かねる / かねます 〜かねない: Verb (masu-stem) + かねない Formality Level Both: Formal — used in business correspondence, official statements, professional contexts. かねる: Standard formula for polite refusals in formal letters/email かねない: Written and spoken formal/business Japanese CRITICAL DISTINCTION These two patterns look almost identical but have opposite-direction meanings: Pattern Meaning Direction Speaker's role 〜かねる...
〜とばかりに — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜とばかりに Formality Level: Literary / Formal — literary fiction, narrative prose, formal descriptive writing, elevated journalism Classical/Literary Origin: とばかりに combines と (quotation particle), ばかり (only, just, approximately — here in the sense of "as if nothing but [this feeling/message]"), and に (manner marker). The pattern means "as if [only] saying ~" — describing the manner in which someone acts as though they are communicating a message through their action rather...
〜ようになる — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜ようになる Structure: Verb (dictionary form) + ようになる → "come to do ~" (new habit/change) Verb (potential form) + ようになる → "become able to ~" (new ability) Verb (negative ない) + ようになる → "come to not do ~" (cessation) Formality: Standard (spoken and written) Meaning: "come to do ~, become able to ~, start doing ~" — result of gradual change Explanation 〜ようになる describes the result of a gradual process...
〜さえ〜ば — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜さえ〜ば Structure: Noun + さえ + [conditional ば/なら] → "if only ~, as long as ~" Verb (masu-stem) + さえ + すれば → "if only one does ~" Verb (TE-form) + さえ + いれば → "as long as one is doing/maintaining ~" I-adj (stem) + さえ + あれば/〜ければ Formality: Standard (spoken and written) Meaning: "if only ~, as long as ~" — minimal sufficient condition Explanation 〜さえ〜ば marks a...
〜に即して / 〜に即した (in accordance with / applied to specific circumstances)
〜に即して / 〜に即した Formality Level: Formal — legal analysis, academic writing, policy documents, formal reporting Structure Form Usage Example Noun + に即して Adverbial 実情に即して判断する Noun + に即した + Noun Prenominal 現実に即した政策 Meaning "In direct accordance with / Applied specifically to / In light of the specific circumstances of X" 〜に即して implies active, case-specific application of a principle, law, or framework to particular circumstances. It is stronger than passive rule-following (〜に従って):...
〜ばかりでなく — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜ばかりでなく Structure: Noun / Verb (plain) / Adjective + ばかりでなく + [additional] + も Formality: Formal / Written Meaning: "not only ~, but also ~" (more emphatic than 〜だけでなく) Explanation 〜ばかりでなく has the same basic meaning as 〜だけでなく〜も — "not only A, but also B" — but it is distinctly more formal and emphatic . It appears primarily in: Written reports and academic papers Formal speeches News articles Official...
〜ともなると / 〜ともなれば (when it comes to being at the level of)
〜ともなると / 〜ともなれば Formality Level: Formal / Semi-formal — formal speech, essays, news commentary Classical/Literary Origin: とも combines the quotative と with the inclusive particle も ("even"). なると (from なる, "to become") and なれば (classical conditional of なる) both express the moment of reaching or becoming a certain level or stage. The pattern entered modern Japanese through formal written and journalistic style. Structure Form Usage Noun + ともなると 大統領ともなると Noun...
〜につれて — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern V-dictionary form + につれて Noun + につれて 〜につれ (formal/written abbreviation) The verb or noun before につれて describes a gradual change or progression. The main clause describes a corresponding change that occurs in parallel. Formality Standard to Formal . につれて is used in both formal writing and conversation, though it sounds slightly literary. It is commonly found in essays, journalism, and formal speech. In very casual registers, 〜にしたがって or 〜ていくと...
〜わけではない — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜わけではない / 〜わけじゃない Structure: Verb / Adjective / Noun + (という)わけではない Often preceded by: からといって (just because), 必ずしも (not necessarily) Formality: Standard (both spoken and written; じゃない is casual) Meaning: "it doesn't mean that ~, it's not that ~, not necessarily ~" Explanation 〜わけではない expresses partial negation of an assumption or inference. The speaker is saying: "don't draw that conclusion — it's not exactly as you might think." This...
JLPT N3 Lesson 3: Complex Conjunctions I — Location and Stance
Overview At N3, you encounter a set of noun-based conjunctive phrases that are almost entirely absent from casual conversation but ubiquitous in formal writing, news, and business contexts. These "complex particles" or "compound postpositions" consist of a noun plus a particle, and they function grammatically like single postpositions. Mastering them is essential: N3 reading passages heavily feature these patterns, and confusing 〜において with 〜で, or 〜に対して with 〜に, signals a...
JLPT N3 Lesson 7: Limits, Scope, and Contrast
Overview Japanese has a highly sophisticated system for expressing partial negation, unexpected contrast, and definitional limitation. These patterns are essential for nuanced communication: saying "it's not that I can't do it" is fundamentally different from saying "I can't do it," and getting this distinction right is crucial at N3 level. The patterns in this lesson allow you to restrict scope, deny assumptions, express unexpected contrast, and make emphatic assertions—all of...
〜に反して / 〜に反する (contrary to / in violation of)
〜に反して / 〜に反する Formality Level: Formal — legal documents, academic writing, journalism, formal criticism Structure Form Usage Example Noun + に反して Adverbial 予想に反して Noun + に反する + Noun Prenominal 規定に反する行為 Meaning "Contrary to X / In violation of X / Going against X" 〜に反して has two main ranges: Violation of rules/agreements: contrary to legal, contractual, or social norms Contrary to expectations/intentions: result that does not match what was expected or...
〜ことなしに — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜ことなしに Structure: Verb (dictionary form) + ことなしに + [result/following action] Formality: Formal / Written Meaning: "without doing ~, without ~ occurring" Explanation 〜ことなしに expresses that the result in the second clause occurs without the prerequisite action in the first clause . It emphasizes that something normally expected or necessary did NOT happen. The second clause often describes an action that logically should require the first clause. It is formal...
〜だに — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜だに Formality Level: Literary / Archaic formal — classical literature, formal written Japanese, elevated literary fiction, proverbs Classical/Literary Origin: だに is a classical Japanese particle of emphasis, related to the modern さえ and すら. In classical Japanese (奈良時代〜平安時代), だに indicated the minimal case: "even X (the least of all cases)." It appears in the Man'yōshū and Genji Monogatari . In modern Japanese it has two residual uses: one with verbs...
〜に基づいて — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun + に基づいて (predicate position: used before a verb) Noun + に基づく + Noun (attributive: modifies the following noun) Noun + に基づいた + Noun (attributive, past-tense form; slightly more natural in running text) Noun + に基づき (formal/written abbreviation) The noun before に基づいて is the foundation, standard, evidence, or authority on which the following action or judgment rests. Formality Formal . に基づいて is the formal register word for "based on."...
〜べく — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜べく Formality Level: Formal / Written / Literary — official documents, formal reports, literary fiction, academic writing, editorial prose Classical/Literary Origin: べく is the adverbial (連用形) form of the classical auxiliary べし, which expressed strong obligation ("must, should") or strong probability ("certainly will"). In its adverbial form, べく came to express purpose: "in order to [do what one must/should do]." In modern Japanese, べく has narrowed to a formal written...
〜はもとより — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun A + はもとより、Noun B も + [verb/predicate] Noun A + はもとより、Noun B さえ + [verb/predicate] (even more emphatic) Both A and B share the same predicate. A is the expected or obvious item; B is the additional, often more surprising or extended item. Formality Formal / Written . はもとより is most common in formal written Japanese — essays, formal speeches, business writing, and news articles. In casual speech,...
不但…而且… (bùdàn...érqiě...) — not only... but also...
不但…而且… (bùdàn...érqiě...) 不但…而且… is a correlative conjunction pattern used to link two clauses where the second adds to or escalates the first. The subject can appear before 不但 (shared subject) or in each clause separately (different subjects). Structure [Subject] + 不但 + [Clause 1] + 而且 + [Clause 2] When the subject is shared, it goes before 不但. When the two clauses have different subjects, each clause carries its own...
〜だけあって / 〜だけに — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜だけあって / 〜だけに (dake atte / dake ni) Structure Noun + だけあって / だけに Verb (plain form) + だけあって / だけに I-adjective + だけあって / だけに Na-adjective + な + だけあって / だけに Formality Level Neutral to formal — used in both spoken and written Japanese. More common in formal writing and reviews. Meanings 〜だけあって: "As befitting X," "as one would expect given X." The outcome is positive and...
〜ざるを得ない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜ざるを得ない / 〜ざるを得ません (zaru o enai) Structure Verb (negative stem, ない-form without ない) + ざるを得ない Irregular: する → せざるを得ない (NOT しざるを得ない) ある → あらざるを得ない (rare/literary) Formation: Take the verb negative (ない) form, remove ない → add ざるを得ない 行く → 行か(ない) → 行かざるを得ない 認める → 認め(ない) → 認めざるを得ない する → せ(ざる) → せざるを得ない Formality Level Formal — primarily written Japanese, formal speech. Common in business, academic, and official contexts. The...
把…V完 (bǎ...V wán) — disposal construction with completion
把…V完 (bǎ...V wán) 把…V完 combines the disposal marker 把 with the result complement 完 (wán, to finish) to express that someone completely used up, finished, or disposed of the object. The focus is on the object being fully dealt with. Structure Subject + 把 + Object + Verb + 完 (+ 了) 了 is often added at the end to mark completion as a past event. Example Sentences 他把作业做完了。 Tā...
JLPT N3 Lesson 6: Expressing Change, Tendency, and Difficulty
Overview One of the central communicative tasks at the N3 level is accurately describing how things have changed , how things tend to happen , and how easy or possible something is . These are not simple on/off descriptions—they involve nuances of gradual change over time, habitual tendencies (often with a negative connotation), the inherent ease or difficulty of an action, and logical possibility or impossibility. These concepts recur throughout...
〜に加えて — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun + に加えて Noun + に加え (formal/written variant) Noun + に加えた + Noun (attributive: "a Noun that was added to ~") The noun before に加えて is the base or primary thing to which something is being added. Formality Standard to Formal . に加えて is natural in both formal writing and spoken Japanese. The abbreviated form に加え is more common in written texts such as reports, news articles, and official...
〜に値する / 〜に値しない (deserving of / undeserving of)
〜に値する / 〜に値しない Formality Level: Formal / Semi-formal — academic writing, editorial criticism, formal evaluation Classical Origin: 値する ( atai suru ) derives from 値 ( atai , value/worth) + する (to do/be). Classical usage: 値 referred to the price or value of something. The modern 〜に値する extends this to abstract worthiness: "having the value to justify X" or "meriting X." Structure Form Example V-dict + に値する 称賛に値する V-dict +...
〜にあたって / 〜に当たり — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜にあたって / 〜に当たり / 〜に当たって (ni atatte / ni atari) Structure Verb (dictionary form) + にあたって / に当たり Noun + にあたって / に当たり 〜に当たり is the more formal written variant Formality Level Highly formal — ceremonial speeches, official company announcements, prefaces to official documents, opening addresses. 〜に当たり is slightly more formal/condensed than 〜にあたって. Meaning "On the occasion of X," "in approaching X," "at this significant moment of X." Marks...
〜にほかならない — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜にほかならない Structure: Noun / Verb (plain) / こと + にほかならない Formality: Formal / Written Meaning: "nothing other than ~, nothing but ~, precisely ~, it is exactly ~" Explanation 〜にほかならない makes an emphatic, exclusive identification : the speaker is asserting with strong conviction that something is definitively a particular thing — there is no other explanation, identity, or cause. ほかならない means "is not other" → "is nothing other than."...
〜をはじめとして / 〜をはじめとする — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜をはじめとして / 〜をはじめとする / 〜をはじめ (o hajimete to shite / o hajimete to suru / o hajime) Structure Noun A + をはじめとして + Noun B, Noun C (verbal use, introducing others after A) Noun A + をはじめとする + Noun (group) (attributive — modifying a collective noun) Noun A + をはじめ (shortened, more colloquial) Formality Level Formal — used in written Japanese, official speeches, academic texts, and business presentations. 〜をはじめ...
〜わけではない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜わけではない / 〜わけではありません (wake de wa nai / wake de wa arimasen) Structure Verb (plain form) + わけではない I-adjective (plain form) + わけではない Na-adjective + な + わけではない Noun + という + わけではない Noun + な + わけではない (less common) Formality Level Neutral to formal — used in both spoken and written Japanese. The formal written version is 〜わけではない; spoken uses 〜わけじゃない. Meaning "It's not that X," "it doesn't...
〜ないでもない — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜ないでもない Formality Level: Semi-formal / Formal — written and spoken formal contexts; careful speech; essays; indirect polite communication Classical/Literary Origin: ないでもない is a double negative construction: ない (negative) + でも (even/also) + ない (negative). The literal parsing is "it is not the case that ~ is not possible/does not exist" — i.e., the negation of a negation, which produces a weak affirmative. This structure is closely related to 〜なくもない (also...
〜とともに — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜とともに Structure: Noun + とともに / Verb (dictionary form) + とともに Formality: Formal / Standard Meaning: "together with ~, along with ~, as ~ also ~" (simultaneous co-occurrence or parallel change) Explanation 〜とともに has two uses: Meaning 1 — Accompaniment/simultaneity: Doing something together with another person or thing. 「彼女とともに働く」(work together with her). Meaning 2 — Parallel development: As one development occurs, another occurs along with it. This is the...
〜にとって — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜にとって Structure: Noun (person/group/entity) + にとって + [evaluative predicate] Formality: Standard to Formal Meaning: "for ~, from the perspective of ~, from the standpoint of ~" Explanation 〜にとって marks the evaluating perspective — who is doing the evaluating. It is always followed by a statement of value, importance, difficulty, meaning, or other evaluative quality. The noun before にとって must be a person, group, organization, or entity capable of having...
〜のもとで / 〜のもとに — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜のもとで / 〜のもとに (no moto de / no moto ni) Structure Noun + のもとで (under X, doing something) Noun + のもとに (under X, as basis/condition — slightly more formal/literary) Formality Level Formal — used in legal texts, official policy documents, academic contexts. 〜のもとに is slightly more literary. Meaning "Under X," "under the conditions/authority/supervision of X." Expresses that an action takes place within an established framework, under authority, supervision, or...
〜とはいえ — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜とはいえ Formality Level: Formal / Semi-formal — editorial writing, formal essays, news commentary, formal spoken discourse Classical/Literary Origin: とはいえ is composed of と (quotation particle) + は (contrastive topic) + いえ (imperative/realis form of いう, "to say"). The literal meaning is "even saying that ~" or "even though one would say ~." In practice, it functions as a concessive conjunction: acknowledging what was just stated as true, but then introducing...
〜に反して — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun + に反して Noun + に反した + Noun (attributive form) Noun + に反し (more formal / written variant) The noun before に反して typically refers to an expectation, wish, prediction, rule, order, or agreement — something that has been violated or gone against. Formality Formal / Written . This pattern appears frequently in newspapers, formal essays, and official statements. It can be used in formal speech, but sounds stiff in...
〜ため(に) — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜ため(に) Structure: Purpose: Verb (dictionary form) + ために → "in order to ~" Cause: Verb (plain past た) + ために / Noun + の + ため(に) → "because of ~, due to ~" Formality: Formal / Standard (preferred over から/ので in formal writing) Meaning: Purpose: "in order to ~" / Cause: "because of ~, due to ~" Explanation The critical distinction is determined by verb tense before ために: Dictionary...
被…V了 (bèi...V le) — passive voice construction
被…V了 (bèi...V le) 被…V了 is the standard way to form a passive sentence in Mandarin. 被 introduces the agent (who performed the action), the verb follows, and 了 marks the action as completed. The construction often implies an unwanted or unexpected outcome for the subject. Structure Subject + 被 + (Agent) + Verb + 了 The agent after 被 is optional. When the agent is unknown or unimportant, it may...
〜てしかたがない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern V-て form + しかたがない / しょうがない い-adj (く form) + てしかたがない / てしょうがない な-adj (で form) + しかたがない / しょうがない The verb or adjective describes a feeling, sensation, or state that cannot be suppressed or helped. The subject is typically the speaker. Formality Neutral to Conversational . てしかたがない is the standard form; てしょうがない is the contracted, more casual form. Both are used in everyday speech and informal writing. てしかたがない...
〜さえ〜ば — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun + さえ + V-conditional (ば/ければ) — "if only [noun], then ~" V-masu stem + さえ + すれば — "if only [you] do ~, then ~" い-adj stem + くさえあれば — "if only it is ~, then ~" The ば-form (conditional) is the standard partner for さえ. The key forms: Verb: V-masu stem + さえすれば (do even just this → then ~) Noun: Noun + さえあれば (if only [noun]...
〜得る/〜得ない — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜得る / 〜得ない Structure: Verb (masu-stem) + 得る ( eru or uru ) → "can possibly ~, it is conceivable that ~" Verb (masu-stem) + 得ない ( enai ) → "cannot possibly ~, it is inconceivable that ~" Formality: Formal / Written (casual equivalent: ありえる / ありえない) Meaning: 〜得る: logical/theoretical possibility / 〜得ない: logical impossibility Explanation 〜得る (pronounced えられる in potential form or simply える/うる as a suffix) expresses...
〜てからというもの — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜てからというもの (te kara to iu mono) Structure Verb (て-form) + からというもの Always describes a sustained, ongoing state that began after the trigger event The following clause typically uses a continuous form (〜ている, 〜になった, 〜てきた) Formality Level Neutral to formal — used in both spoken and written Japanese. The literary quality makes it particularly common in essays, memoirs, biographical writing, and formal personal statements. Can appear in business contexts when...
〜ないまでも — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜ないまでも Formality Level: Formal / Semi-formal — written argument, formal requests, journalistic opinion, formal spoken debate Classical/Literary Origin: ないまでも combines the negative ない, the limit/extent marker まで (up to, as far as), and も (even). The literal parsing is "even up to the point of not doing ~" — i.e., even if we do not reach the level of [ideal action], at minimum [lesser action] should be possible or expected....
〜てならない (unbearable feeling — literary spontaneous emotion)
〜てならない Formality Level: Formal / Literary — literary prose, formal speech, elevated personal expression Classical Origin: ならない derives from the classical copula/auxiliary なる ( naru ) in its negative form. 〜てならない literally means "the state of X cannot become otherwise" — the feeling is so complete and natural that it cannot help but be. This links to the mono no aware (物の哀れ) aesthetic tradition of Heian literature, where feelings were...
〜どころか — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜どころか Structure: Noun / Verb (plain) / Adjective + どころか + [contrary or amplified result] Formality: Standard (spoken and written) Meaning: "far from ~, let alone ~, on the contrary ~" Explanation 〜どころか expresses a strong unexpected contrast : "the reality is not just different from A — it is the opposite, or something even more extreme." Two uses: Use 1 — "Far from A, actually [the opposite/worse]": The...
〜に従い / 〜に従って — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜に従い / 〜に従って (ni shitagai / ni shitagatte) Structure Noun + に従い / に従って (compliance meaning) Verb (dictionary form) + に従い / に従って (compliance meaning) Noun + に従い / に従って (gradual change meaning — with change verbs) Formality Level Formal — common in legal texts, manuals, official instructions, business correspondence. 〜に従い is slightly more formal than 〜に従って. Meanings Meaning A — Compliance/Following (the main use): "In accordance with X,"...
〜て以来 — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜て以来 Structure: Verb (TE-form) + 以来 / Noun + 以来 Formality: Standard to Formal Meaning: "ever since ~, since ~ [state has continued to now]" Explanation 〜て以来 expresses that a state or situation has continued without interruption ever since a past turning point. It always looks from the present moment back to a specific past event that created a change, and it implies the change established then is still...
〜に足る / 〜に足らない (worthy of / unworthy of)
〜に足る / 〜に足らない Formality Level: Formal / Literary — formal evaluation, criticism, literary prose Classical Origin: 足る ( taru ) is the classical/literary form of 足りる ( tariru , to be sufficient/adequate). The classical form 足る remains in use in formal and literary Japanese in fixed expressions. 〜に足る means "sufficient for/adequate to X" → "worthy of X." 〜に足らない means "not sufficient for X" → "not worthy of / beneath." Structure...
〜たところ — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜たところ (ta tokoro) Structure Verb (た-form/past) + ところ Typically followed by a discovery verb: 分かった, 判明した, 見つかった, あった, なかった, etc. Formality Level Neutral to formal — used in business reports, investigation summaries, academic writing, and formal correspondence. Also natural in spoken formal Japanese. Meaning "Upon doing X, [I discovered/found that] Y." Expresses that after completing an action, the speaker encountered or discovered an unexpected or noteworthy result. The key...
〜きらいがある (tendency — negative characteristic)
〜きらいがある Formality Level: Semi-formal — formal commentary, essay writing, analytical language Classical Origin: きらい ( kirai ) in this grammatical context does not mean "dislike" (嫌い) but rather derives from an older noun meaning "tendency" or "inclination" (as in 気らい, a reading of 気). The expression 〜きらいがある means "there is a tendency of that kind" — and this tendency is always negative or problematic in some way. Structure Form Example...
〜というより — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern [Description A] + というより、[Description B] + だ/の方が正確だ Noun + というより、Noun + だ V-plain + というより、V-plain / adj-plain + [description] Description A is the initial or obvious characterization. Description B (after というより) is the more accurate, more precise, or more fitting description that the speaker prefers. Formality Neutral . というより is used naturally in both spoken and written Japanese. It is common in casual conversation, essays, literary commentary, and everyday...
〜ものを (regret / reproach — it should have been)
〜ものを Formality Level: Formal / Literary — formal writing, literary prose, expressive formal speech Classical Origin: ものを combines the classical nominaliser もの (物/者, "thing/matter") with the classical concessive/contrastive particle を ( wo , used as a terminal particle of regret in classical Japanese). In classical Japanese, the construction verb + ものを at the end of a sentence expressed lamentation or dissatisfaction: "it should have been/happened that way, and yet it...
〜ならいざしらず — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜ならいざしらず Formality Level: Formal / Literary — editorial writing, formal debates, literary fiction, written criticism Classical/Literary Origin: いざしらず is a classical Japanese expression combining いざ (an archaic exclamatory/transitional word, equivalent to "well now, as for") and しらず (the negative of 知る, "not knowing / I do not know"). Together, いざしらず means roughly "I don't know about that / leaving that aside / setting aside the question of." When preceded by...
越来越… (yuè lái yuè...) — more and more...
越来越… (yuè lái yuè...) 越来越 is placed before an adjective or verb to describe something that is continuously increasing in degree. It always refers to a process unfolding over time, not a static comparison. Structure Subject + 越来越 + Adjective/Verb (+ 了) 了 at the end often marks the change as already noticeable. Example Sentences 他的中文越来越流利了。 Tā de Zhōngwén yuè lái yuè liúlì le. His Chinese is getting more and...
〜いかんでは / 〜いかんによっては (depending on the circumstances of)
〜いかんでは / 〜いかんによっては Formality Level: Formal — legal texts, official policies, formal announcements Classical Origin: See entry for 〜いかんによらず for the origin of いかん. 〜いかんでは and 〜いかんによっては are the conditional complements of 〜いかんによらず: where 〜いかんによらず declares X irrelevant (regardless of X), 〜いかんでは declares X potentially relevant (depending on X). Structure Form Example Noun (の) + いかんでは 審査結果のいかんでは Noun (の) + いかんによっては 状況のいかんによっては Meaning "Depending on the nature/circumstances/manner of X, Y...
动词+不/得+结果 — verb + potential complement
动词+不/得+结果 (Verb + Potential Complement) The potential complement inserts 得 (de) or 不 (bù) between a verb and its result complement to express whether the action can or cannot achieve the intended result. 得 signals possibility; 不 signals impossibility. Structure Affirmative: Verb + 得 + Result Complement Negative: Verb + 不 + Result Complement Common result complements: 完 (wán, finish), 到 (dào, reach/attain), 了 (liǎo, manage to), 懂 (dǒng, understand),...
〜に先立って — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun + に先立って V-dictionary form + に先立って Noun + に先立ち (formal/written variant) Noun + に先立つ + Noun (attributive: "a Noun that precedes ~") The noun or verb before に先立って is the main or significant event that has not yet taken place — the action in the main clause comes before it. Formality Formal . に先立って is used in official speeches, announcements, ceremonial language, and formal written Japanese. It is...
〜ないではすまない (social obligation — modern variant)
〜ないではすまない Formality Level: Semi-formal — formal writing, analytical commentary, news editorials Relationship to 〜ずにはすまない: 〜ないではすまない is the modern variant of 〜ずにはすまない. The meaning is identical; the form differs: 〜ずにはすまない: classical negative ず + にはすまない 〜ないではすまない: modern negative ない + ではすまない 〜ないではすまない is slightly more contemporary in feel and appears in both formal written and semi-formal spoken contexts, whereas 〜ずにはすまない is more strictly formal. Structure Form Example V-neg form (ない) +...
〜たる (classical stative adjective — befitting / being X in the full sense)
〜たる Formality Level: Formal / Literary / Archaic — formal speeches, literary prose, elevated descriptions Classical Origin: たる is the attributive (prenominal) form of the classical copula たり ( tari ), which itself derives from にて ( nite , classical instrumental-existential) + あり ( ari , "to be"). In classical Japanese, たり expressed a stative: "being in the state of X" or "existing as X." Its attributive form たる creates...
〜をものともせず (undaunted by / not deterred by)
〜をものともせず Formality Level: Semi-formal / Literary — formal writing, literary prose, journalistic praise Classical Origin: ものともせず: もの (thing/matter — classical nominaliser) + とも (inclusive も with と) + せず (classical negative of する). Literally: "without making it a thing/matter" → treating a formidable obstacle as if it were nothing. The expression has a heroic, admiring quality — it praises the subject's courage or determination in the face of adversity. Structure...
〜に際して — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun + に際して V-dictionary form + に際して Noun + に際し (more formal / written variant) Noun + に際しての + Noun (attributive: "~ at the time of Noun") The noun or verb before に際して refers to a significant event, occasion, or action — typically an important transition, formal procedure, or meaningful moment. Formality Formal . に際して is found in formal speeches, official announcements, written guidelines, and ceremonial language. It is...
〜を通じて — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun + を通じて (predicate position) Noun + を通じた + Noun (attributive: "a Noun achieved through/throughout ~") Noun + を通して (alternative form; same meaning, slightly more conversational) The noun before を通じて is either (1) the medium or channel through which something happens, or (2) a period of time throughout which something continues. Formality Standard to Formal . を通じて is used across registers — formal essays, business communication, news articles, and...
〜からすると / 〜からすれば / 〜からみると — JLPT N2 Grammar
Patterns 〜からすると / 〜からすれば / 〜からみると / 〜からみれば (kara suru to / kara sureba / kara miru to / kara mireba) Structure Noun + からすると / からすれば / からみると / からみれば The noun is a perspective, standpoint, evidence, or person whose viewpoint is being used to make a judgment Formality Level Formal to neutral — used in analytical writing, academic papers, business analysis, editorial writing. Also appears in formal spoken...
〜てたまらない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern V-て form + たまらない い-adj (く form) + てたまらない な-adj (で form) + たまらない The verb or adjective describes a feeling, sensation, or desire that has become unbearable or overwhelming. The subject is typically the speaker. Formality Neutral to Conversational . てたまらない is more conversational and immediate than てならない. It is used in everyday speech, informal writing, and casual essays. In formal writing, てならない would be preferred for emotions,...
〜ざるを得ない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern V-negative stem (ざる) + を得ない Formation rules: Group 1 verbs (u-verbs): replace the final u with a-row kana, then add ざるを得ない. E.g., 行く → 行か + ざるを得ない = 行かざるを得ない Group 2 verbs (ru-verbs): remove る, then add ざるを得ない. E.g., 食べる → 食べ + ざるを得ない = 食べざるを得ない Irregular verb する: becomes せざるを得ない (NOT しざるを得ない) Irregular verb くる: becomes こざるを得ない The ざる is the classical Japanese negative auxiliary (equivalent to modern...
〜において/〜における — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜において / 〜における Structure: Noun + において / Noun + における + Noun (attributive) Formality: Formal / Written Meaning: "in ~, at ~, in the domain/context of ~" Explanation 〜において marks the domain, field, setting, or context in which something takes place or is being discussed. It is the formal written equivalent of the casual particle 〜で when 〜で marks a context (not a physical tool). The attributive form...
〜わけにはいかない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜わけにはいかない / 〜わけにはいきません (wake ni wa ikanai) Also: 〜ないわけにはいかない (double negative form) Structure Verb (plain form) + わけにはいかない (cannot do — social/moral prohibition) Verb (ない-form) + わけにはいかない (cannot NOT do — double negative obligation) Formality Level Neutral to formal — used in both spoken and written Japanese, though more commonly in spoken formal situations, novels, and essays. Meaning 〜わけにはいかない: "Cannot do X," "it won't do to do X," "I...
〜ともなく — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜ともなく Formality Level: Literary / Semi-formal — literary fiction, narrative prose, introspective writing, formal descriptive text Classical/Literary Origin: ともなく combines the quotation particle と (here used to echo a verb), も (even), and なく (the negative adverbial of ない, meaning "without"). The overall sense is "without it being the case that [verb]" — i.e., the action happens without a clear conscious intention or specific target. The pattern appears in literary...
〜まじき — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜まじき Formality Level: Literary / Formal written — legal commentary, journalism (editorial condemnation), formal written criticism, literary fiction Classical/Literary Origin: まじき is the attributive (連体形) form of the classical auxiliary まじ, which is the negative counterpart of べし ("should, must"). While べし expresses obligation or strong likelihood, まじ expresses that something should not happen or is not befitting . The attributive form まじき modifies a following noun, creating the meaning...
〜をよそに (regardless of / oblivious to / ignoring)
〜をよそに Formality Level: Semi-formal to Formal — formal writing, literary prose, editorial commentary Classical Origin: よそ ( yoso ) means "other place / elsewhere / something unrelated." 〜をよそに literally means "sending X to a distant/unrelated place" — treating X as if it were irrelevant or far away. The pattern expresses that the subject acts as if the mentioned concern, expectation, or circumstance has nothing to do with them. Structure Form...
〜とあって (because of the special circumstance)
〜とあって Formality Level: Formal / Literary — written language, formal speech, announcements Classical/Literary Origin: とあって derives from the classical quotative particle と + the classical gerundive of あり ( ari ) → あって. In classical Japanese, 〜とあって meant "existing in the state described as X." The modern pattern retains this: "given that it is the situation described as X, naturally Y follows." It entered modern formal Japanese through Meiji-era literary...
〜べし / 〜べからず (classical should / must not)
〜べし / 〜べからず Formality Level: Archaic / Literary — laws, school rules, mottos, formal declarations, literary prose Classical Origin: べし is one of the most important auxiliary verbs in classical Japanese ( 文語 ). It appears throughout the Manyoshu , the Kokinwakashu , Heian-period prose, medieval warrior codes, and Edo-period legal documents. べし derives from the adjective べき ( beki ) which itself comes from Old Japanese be-si expressing appropriateness,...
〜いかんによらず / 〜いかんにかかわらず (regardless of / irrespective of)
〜いかんによらず / 〜いかんにかかわらず Formality Level: Formal — legal texts, regulations, official announcements, formal academic writing Classical Origin: いかん ( ikan ) is a Sino-Japanese compound: 如何 ( rú hé in Mandarin), classical Chinese for "how it is / what the state of things is." It entered Japanese formal writing through kanbun scholarship. 〜いかんによらず means "regardless of what X is like" — unconditional applicability. The variant 〜いかんにかかわらず adds the additional emphatic...
〜をもって — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜をもって Formality Level: Formal / Written — official announcements, legal documents, ceremonial speech, formal notices Classical/Literary Origin: をもって derives from classical Japanese をもちて, the te-form of もつ ("to have, to hold") preceded by the object marker を. In classical texts it expressed the means or instrument by which an action is performed: "holding X, by means of X." The modern form をもって has become a fixed formal expression used in...
〜に違いない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern V-plain form + に違いない い-adj-plain + に違いない な-adj + に違いない (drop だ before に違いない) Noun + に違いない (drop だ before に違いない) The clause before に違いない is the speaker's conclusion or inference. The pattern applies to all tenses: 〜したに違いない (must have done), 〜するに違いない (must do / will certainly). Formality Neutral . に違いない is used naturally across all registers — casual conversation, formal writing, news articles, and academic texts. It is...
〜ものがある (there is a quality of — ineffable characteristic)
〜ものがある Formality Level: Semi-formal — essays, criticism, formal commentary, literary prose Classical Origin: もの (物) in classical Japanese referred to things that have a tangible or intangible existence in the world. 〜ものがある literally means "there exists a 'thing' [= quality/property] [in X]." The pattern expresses that the speaker perceives a quality that is real and present but difficult to fully articulate — often used when something strikes the speaker as...
〜だけでなく〜も — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜だけでなく〜も Structure: Noun / Verb (plain) / Adj + だけでなく + [additional item] + も Often: AだけでなくBも [predicate] Formality: Standard (spoken and formal writing) Meaning: "not only A but also B" Explanation 〜だけでなく〜も expands the scope beyond what was expected or assumed. A alone would already be notable, but B is added as an additional, unexpected element. The も after B marks it as "also" — emphasizing its inclusion....
〜たびに — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜たびに Structure: Verb (dictionary form) + たびに Noun + の + たびに Formality: Standard (spoken and written) Meaning: "every time ~, whenever ~" Explanation 〜たびに expresses a consistent, repeated pattern: every single time event/action A occurs, result/feeling B reliably follows. It emphasizes the regularity and consistency of the connection. It often carries emotional weight — a memory, a feeling, or a habitual response that always accompanies a recurring event....
〜ながらも — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜ながらも Formality Level: Formal / Literary — novels, formal essays, literary journalism, elevated speech Classical/Literary Origin: ながら derives from classical Japanese and expresses simultaneity or a persistent state. The particle も adds concessive force ("even"). Together, ながらも creates a pattern meaning "even while in the state of ~" or "even though ~." It is more literary and elegant than にもかかわらず and carries a stronger sense that both states coexist simultaneously...
〜にかかわらず — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜にかかわらず (ni kakawarazu) Structure Noun + にかかわらず Verb (plain form affirmative/negative pair) + にかかわらず (whether X or not) I-adjective pair (〜か〜かに) + かかわらず Question word + かに + かかわらず (regardless of what/who/how) Formality Level Formal — primarily written Japanese. Common in legal documents, contracts, official notices, and academic writing. Meaning "Regardless of X," "irrespective of X," "whether X or not." Expresses that the following statement or condition applies universally,...
JLPT N3 Lesson 4: Complex Conjunctions II — Change and Proportion
Overview Japanese has a sophisticated set of expressions for describing how one thing changes in proportion or response to another. These "change and proportion" patterns are a cornerstone of formal and analytical language in Japanese. When a news anchor says 「経済の成長に従い、雇用も増加した」(As the economy grew, employment also increased), they are using a grammatical structure that elegantly encodes a proportional relationship. These patterns are essential for writing reports, discussing trends, and interpreting...
〜といっても — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun + といっても、[qualification] V-plain / Adj-plain + といっても、[qualification] Na-adj + だといっても / といっても、[qualification] The element before といっても is a statement, description, or label. What follows is a qualification or correction that prevents the listener from overinterpreting it. Formality Neutral . といっても is used naturally in both casual conversation and formal writing. It is common in essays, explanations, and everyday spoken Japanese where the speaker wants to manage the listener's...
〜にもかかわらず — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜にもかかわらず (ni mo kakawarazu) Structure Noun + にもかかわらず Verb (plain form) + にもかかわらず I-adjective (plain form) + にもかかわらず Na-adjective + である + にもかかわらず (formal) Na-adjective + な + にもかかわらず (slightly less formal) Formality Level Formal — written Japanese, news, academic, legal contexts. The spoken equivalent is 〜のに (more informal and emotionally charged). Meaning "Despite X," "in spite of X," "even though X." Expresses a contrastive, unexpected result — X...
〜極まりない / 〜極まる (extreme — strong emotional evaluation)
〜極まりない / 〜極まる Formality Level: Semi-formal / Formal — formal criticism, editorial writing, formal complaint Classical Origin: 極まる ( kiwa-maru ) means "to reach the extreme / to be at the limit." 極まりない combines 極まり (limit/extreme) + ない (no/without) → "without limit" → "in the extreme." The negative ない adds the sense of "having no ceiling" on the quality — it is so extreme it cannot be further qualified. Structure...
〜ばかりか — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun + ばかりか、~ も / さえ / まで + [verb/predicate] V-plain / Adj-plain + ばかりか、~ も / さえ / まで + [verb/predicate] The element after ばかりか (introduced with も, さえ, or まで) is the surprising or more extreme additional item. The predicate applies to both items. Formality Neutral to Formal . ばかりか is used in both written and spoken Japanese. It is more emphatic than だけでなく and tends to...
〜ならでは — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜ならでは Formality Level: Formal / Semi-formal — journalism, travel writing, advertising copy, formal speeches, product descriptions Classical/Literary Origin: ならでは derives from classical Japanese: なら (classical conditional/copula form of なり) + で (classical negative/instrumental particle) + は (contrastive topic). Literally, it meant "if it were not for X" or "without X, it could not be." The modern pattern preserves this exclusivity logic but is predominantly used in affirmative contexts to praise...
〜に対して/〜に対する — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜に対して / 〜に対する Structure: Noun + に対して / Noun + に対する + Noun (attributive) Formality: Standard to Formal Meaning: "toward ~, against ~, in contrast to ~, in response to ~" Explanation 〜に対して marks the target or object to which an action, attitude, or comparison is directed. Unlike the simple particle 〜に (which marks direction or indirect object), 〜に対して specifically emphasizes a response or stance directed at a target....
〜として — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜として / 〜としての / 〜とした Structure: Noun + として + [predicate/action] Noun + としての + Noun (attributive) Noun + とした + Noun (attributive, often "taking ~ as a basis") Formality: Standard to Formal Meaning: "as ~, in the capacity of ~, in the role of ~, taking ~ as ~" Explanation 〜として marks the role, capacity, identity, function, or basis in which someone/something acts or is regarded. Common uses:...
〜あっての / 〜あってこそ (only possible because of — prerequisite)
〜あっての / 〜あってこそ Formality Level: Semi-formal to Formal — speeches, formal writing, expressions of gratitude Classical/Literary Origin: Both patterns derive from あって (gerundive of ある, "to exist/be") + の (nominaliser) or こそ (classical emphatic particle). こそ is a classical Japanese emphatic particle (already discussed in Lesson 1) that appeared in the Man'yoshu and throughout classical poetry to mark the one true reason for a state. 〜あってこそ thus carries classical emphatic...
〜をもとに / 〜をもとにして — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜をもとに / 〜をもとにして (o moto ni / o moto ni shite) Structure Noun + をもとに (followed by verb) Noun + をもとにして (followed by verb — slightly more emphatic) Noun + をもとにした + Noun (attributive) Formality Level Formal to neutral — used in academic, business, creative, and analytical contexts. Common in both written and spoken formal Japanese. Meaning "Based on X," "using X as a basis," "drawing from X." Expresses...
比较…一点 (bǐjiào...yīdiǎn) — comparatively... a bit
比较…一点 (bǐjiào...yīdiǎn) 比较 (bǐjiào) means "relatively" or "comparatively" and softens an adjective. Adding 一点 (yīdiǎn, a bit) at the end further reduces the strength of the statement, making it more modest or polite. The combination is natural when expressing a mild preference or gentle criticism. Structure Subject + 比较 + Adjective + 一点 一点 may also appear after a comparison: A + 比 + B + Adjective + 一点 (A...
〜ならでは (unique to / only possible with)
〜ならでは Formality Level: Formal / Semi-formal — journalism, advertising, formal speech, travel writing Classical/Literary Origin: ならでは derives from classical Japanese: なら (classical copula, conditional form of なり) + で (classical negative/instrumental particle) + は (contrastive topic). In classical Japanese, 〜ならでは literally meant "if it were not for X" and carried a negative implication: "only X could do this; nothing else could." The modern pattern retains this exclusivity logic but is...
〜もさることながら — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜もさることながら Formality Level: Formal / Semi-formal — journalism, formal praise, business communication, formal speeches, product reviews Classical/Literary Origin: さることながら derives from classical Japanese: さる (classical pronoun/adjective "such, that kind of," related to modern そういう) + こと (nominalised action/state) + ながら (classical concessive particle, "even though / that being so"). The full phrase さることながら means "even though that (said thing) is the case / granted that much." With the preceding も...
是…的 (shì...de) — emphasis construction
是…的 (shì...de) 是…的 is an emphasis construction used when the action itself is already known or assumed, and the speaker wants to highlight a specific detail about it: when it happened, where, how, or by whom. 是 can often be omitted in speech, but 的 at the end is required. Structure Subject + 是 + [Emphasized Element] + Verb (+ Object) + 的 The emphasized element (time, place, manner, agent)...
〜ごとし / 〜ごとく (as though / like — literary comparison)
〜ごとし / 〜ごとく Formality Level: Literary / Formal — literary prose, proverbs, formal descriptions, classical quotations Classical Origin: ごとし derives from classical Japanese gotoshi ( 如し ), meaning "like" or "as." It appears throughout the oldest Japanese texts including the Manyoshu , the Kojiki ( Record of Ancient Matters , 712 CE), and Nihon Shoki (720 CE). In Classical Chinese texts read in Japan ( kanbun ), the character 如...
〜ようにする — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜ようにする Structure: Verb (dictionary form) + ようにする → "try to do ~, make a point of doing ~" Verb (negative ない) + ようにする → "try not to do ~, make sure not to ~" Formality: Standard (spoken and written) Meaning: "make an effort to ~, try to ensure ~, make a point of ~" Explanation 〜ようにする expresses a sustained, deliberate effort to make something happen or to avoid something....
JLPT N3 Lesson 9: Reading Newspaper Japanese
Overview Newspaper Japanese ( shinbun-go , 新聞語) represents one of the most distinctive written registers in the language. Its grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure differ significantly from both casual speech and standard polite written Japanese. At the N3 level, you will encounter newspaper-style texts in the Reading section, and understanding their conventions is the key to scoring well. The good news is that newspaper style follows consistent, learnable patterns—once you...
〜次第で / 〜次第だ / 〜次第 — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜次第で / 〜次第だ (conditional: depending on) 〜次第 (temporal: as soon as) Structure Meaning A — Depending on (conditionality): Noun + 次第で / 次第では / 次第だ The noun is the variable that determines the outcome Meaning B — As soon as (temporal sequence): Verb (masu-stem) + 次第 The verb describes the action whose completion triggers the next action Formality Level Formal — common in business correspondence, official notices, and formal...
〜うちに — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜うちに Structure: Verb (ている / dictionary) + うちに → "while [condition continues]" I-adj + うちに / Na-adj + な + うちに / Noun + の + うちに Verb (negative ない) + うちに → "before [something happens]" Formality: Standard (both spoken and written) Meaning: "while ~, during the time that ~, before it's too late / before ~ happens" Explanation 〜うちに expresses action taken within a window of time that...
〜はおろか — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜はおろか (wa oroka) Structure Noun A + はおろか + Noun B + も/さえ/すら + [negative or extreme predicate] Noun A + はおろか + Noun B + も/さえ + [positive extreme predicate] (positive direction less common) The predicate typically applies to BOTH A and B, but the focus is that B (which should be easier or more basic) is also impossible or true. Formality Level Formal/written — literary and journalistic...
〜わけにはいかない — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜わけにはいかない / 〜わけにもいかない Structure: Verb (dictionary form) + わけにはいかない → "can't possibly do ~" Verb (negative ない) + わけにはいかない → "can't possibly not do ~, must do ~" Formality: Standard (spoken and written) Meaning: "can't possibly ~, not in a position to ~, it wouldn't be right to ~" Explanation 〜わけにはいかない expresses that something cannot be done due to social, moral, or practical constraints — not physical inability, but...
〜ずにはすまない (social obligation — cannot avoid doing)
〜ずにはすまない Formality Level: Semi-formal — formal writing, formal speech, analytical commentary Classical Origin: ずに is the classical negative gerundive (see Lesson 1: 〜ず). すまない derives from 済む ( sumu , to be settled/complete) in its negative form: "it does not settle/complete." The full pattern means: "without doing X, the situation cannot be settled/completed" → social or moral compulsion requires X. Structure Form Example V-neg stem + ずにはすまない 謝らずにはすまない Suru →...
〜につれて — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜につれて Structure: Verb (dictionary form) + につれて / Noun + につれて Formality: Standard to Formal Meaning: "as ~ (gradually changes), ~ also changes proportionally" Explanation 〜につれて expresses gradual proportional co-change : as one thing gradually changes or progresses, another thing correspondingly changes. Both changes are simultaneous and ongoing. This pattern is typically used for natural, ongoing processes (seasons, aging, growing skills, social trends). Key characteristics: Both the first and...
〜べく / 〜べきだ / 〜べきではない — JLPT N2 Grammar
Patterns 〜べく (formal purpose: "in order to") 〜べきだ / 〜べき (should/ought to — moral/logical obligation) 〜べきではない (should not) Structure 〜べく: Verb (dictionary form) + べく Irregular: する → すべく (more formal/literary) or するべく (modern) 〜べきだ: Verb (dictionary form) + べきだ / べきである (formal) Irregular: する → すべきだ or するべきだ Formality Level 〜べく: Highly formal/literary — legal documents, old-fashioned formal writing, historical texts, official speeches. 〜べきだ: Formal — editorial writing, academic...
〜をめぐって / 〜をめぐる — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern 〜をめぐって / 〜をめぐる (o megutte / o meguru) Structure Noun + をめぐって (followed by verb — verbal use) Noun + をめぐる + Noun (attributive — modifying a noun) Formality Level Formal — primarily used in news reporting, academic writing, political discourse. Common in newspaper headlines and editorial writing. Meaning "Surrounding X," "concerning X," "over X" — used for topics that are disputed, controversial, or under active debate . The...
〜が最後 — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜が最後 Formality Level: Literary / Formal — literary fiction, formal narrative, formal warnings, idiom-rich writing Classical/Literary Origin: が最後 uses the subject marker が and 最後 (last, final). The construction means "that [moment] being the last [chance/state before irreversible change]." It is a set idiomatic pattern in Japanese expressing that once the action in the preceding clause occurs, the situation cannot be reversed — what follows is unavoidable and typically negative....
〜とたんに — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜とたんに / 〜とたん Structure: Verb (plain past た-form) + とたん(に) Formality: Standard (mostly spoken; also in narrative writing) Meaning: "the moment ~, just as ~, the instant ~ happened" Explanation 〜とたんに describes an instantaneous, often unexpected change that occurs the very moment a preceding action is completed. The result is typically: Sudden and involuntary Surprising or unintended Something that happens naturally/spontaneously (not a deliberate action) Critical rule: The result...
〜限りだ (nothing but — strong emotion expression)
〜限りだ Formality Level: Semi-formal — formal personal expression, formal speeches, letters of appreciation or criticism Classical Origin: 限り ( kagiri ) means "limit / extent / boundary." 〜限りだ literally means "it is to the limit of [emotion]" — the speaker's emotional state is at its maximum extent. This pattern is used to express the peak or full extent of a feeling. Structure Form Example い-Adj + 限りだ 嬉しい限りだ な-Adj +...
〜に従って/〜に従い — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜に従って / 〜に従い Structure: Noun (rule/instruction/order) + に従って → compliance Verb (dictionary form) + に従って → proportional change as action progresses Formality: Formal / Standard Meaning: "in accordance with ~, following ~, as ~ progresses" Explanation 〜に従って has two related meanings: Meaning 1 — Compliance: Following or acting in accordance with a rule, order, manual, or standard. The agent actively conforms to an external authority. 「規則に従って行動する」(act according to the...
动词+得+adj — verb + degree complement
动词+得+adj (Verb + Degree Complement) The degree complement uses 得 (de) after a verb to introduce an adjective or descriptive phrase that evaluates the manner or degree of the action. It answers the question "how well?" or "to what extent?" Structure Verb + 得 + Adjective/Descriptive Phrase If the verb takes an object, the verb must be repeated: Verb + Object + Verb + 得 + Adjective . Example Sentences...
〜によって/〜による — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜によって / 〜により / 〜による Structure: Noun + によって / により (formal written) Noun + による + Noun (attributive) Formality: Formal / Written (especially 〜により) Meaning: Four uses — agent (by), means (through/by means of), cause (due to), variation (depending on) Explanation 〜によって is one of the most versatile patterns in N3. It covers four semantic roles: Agent (in passive constructions): who performed the action — 「この小説は夏目漱石によって書かれた」 Means/method :...
〜すら / 〜でさえ (even — register distinction)
〜すら / 〜でさえ Formality Level: すら = Literary/Formal; でさえ = Semi-formal; さえ = Neutral; でも = Casual Classical Origin: すら is one of the oldest particles in Japanese, appearing in the Man'yoshu (8th century) and Kokinwakashu (905 CE). In classical Japanese, すら marked "even X (the minimum or most unexpected element on a scale)." The Heian poet Fujiwara no Teika used it to mark extreme emotional states: "even the spring...
JLPT N3 Lesson 5: Advanced Conditionals and Timing
Overview At N4, you mastered the four basic conditional patterns: 〜たら (if/when, past trigger), 〜ば (if, hypothetical condition), 〜と (if, natural consequence), and 〜なら (if, given that). At N3, the conditional system expands into patterns that carry richer semantic nuances—urgency, repetition, instantaneous reaction, duration of an ongoing state, and dependency. The difference between N4 and N3 conditionals is not just grammatical complexity; it is the addition of emotional color, timing...
〜であれ〜であれ — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜であれ〜であれ Formality Level: Formal / Written — legal texts, formal speeches, editorial writing, academic prose Classical/Literary Origin: であれ is the classical imperative form of the copula である ("to be"). In classical Japanese, あれ (be!) was used in a generalising or concessive conditional sense: "be it X, be it Y" — meaning "whether X or Y." The doubled pattern 〜であれ〜であれ extends this: "whether one is X or Y, whether it is...
〜わけがない — JLPT N3 Grammar
Pattern: 〜わけがない / 〜わけはない Structure: Verb / Adjective / Noun + わけがない Common: Plain form + わけがない Formality: Standard (spoken and written) Meaning: "there's no way ~, it's impossible that ~, there's no reason why ~" Explanation 〜わけがない expresses the speaker's strong conviction that something is logically or fundamentally impossible . わけ means "reason/logic," so わけがない literally means "there is no logical reason for this to be the case." It...
〜とあれば — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜とあれば Formality Level: Formal / Semi-formal — journalism, literary fiction, formal speech, elevated prose Classical/Literary Origin: とあれば combines the quotation particle と, the classical conditional form あれば (from ある, "to be"), and creates a conditional meaning: "if it is the case that ~." It is derived from と + あれば (conditional of ある). In modern Japanese, the pattern has specialised to mean "given the condition/reason of ~, one is willing...
〜かたわら — JLPT N1 Grammar
〜かたわら Formality Level: Formal / Written — newspaper profiles, biographies, formal introductions, academic writing Classical/Literary Origin: かたわら (傍ら) originally meant "beside, at the side of" as a spatial noun in classical Japanese. Its extended meaning — doing something "at the side of" a main activity — developed naturally from this spatial metaphor: pursuing a secondary activity alongside one's primary work or role. The pattern is written in hiragana in modern...
〜をはじめ — JLPT N2 Grammar
Pattern Noun A + をはじめ、Noun B も / や / など + [verb/predicate] Noun A + をはじめとして + [broader group description] Noun A + をはじめとする + Noun (attributive: modifies the following noun) Noun A + をはじめとした + Noun (attributive, past-tense form) Noun A is the most representative or prominent example of a larger group. What follows (Noun B, or the broader description) expands on this group. Formality Standard to Formal...